Gender Wage Gap And Gender Inequality - 1740 Words

The gender wage gap is defined as the relative difference in earnings between men and women in the economy as a whole. For every dollar a man makes, his female counterpart makes roughly seventy-seven cents. Even if a men and women have the same educational background and work history the man will go home with a higher paycheck than the woman. This may actually lead to tension in the workplace and cause conflict in the office. This also includes female dominated industries- most notably, nursing. The number of men in the nursing industry has increased tremendously in the past decade. However, men are still in a clear minority. On average, â€Å"the average salary per year in 2011 was nearly $61,000 for a male nurse and just $51,100 for a female nurse† (Diamond, 2014). This leaves a difference of $9,900. While we can all agree that the gender wage gap does in fact exist, I want to discover what exactly causes the wage gap, how it affects those on the disadvantaged end, and wh at can be done to diminish it. In the nursing profession, men have been out-earning women since 1988. The Journal of the American Medical Association conducted a recent study on this pay gap. . The study reflects data from nearly 88,000 RNs from the National Sample Survey of Registered Nurses from 1988 to 2008, as well as 205,825 RNs from the 2001-2013 American Community Surveys. Both data sets showed male RNs’ salaries were higher than female RNs’ salaries every year. The average earnings difference wasShow MoreRelatedGender Wage Gap Inequality And Gender Inequality Essay1880 Words   |  8 PagesArmando Suqui-Carchi Professor Pantano English 201 13 December 2016 Gender Wage Gap Inequality The gender wage inequality topic is one that has quietly laid in Americas closet of problems for decades. A female worker in Louisiana makes on average an alarming sixty-six cents compared to the dollar a man makes in twenty sixteen. When a father comes home after a forty-hour long work week making fifteen dollars an hour, he will open up a paycheck to six hundred dollars. When a mother comes home afterRead MoreGender Wage Gap And Gender Inequality1738 Words   |  7 PagesThe Gender Wage Gap is defined as the different amounts of money that is paid to women and men, often for doing the same work. Women who work full time, year round earn 77 cents for every dollar that men earn. Over a year women make $11,500 less than men and throughout their life this wage gap can affect women by making them earn anywhere from $400,000-$2 million less than men do. (Miller 2008, 6) The wage gap varies for women of different races. On average African-American women are paid 60 centsRead MoreGender Wage Gap And Gender Inequality2164 Words   |  9 Pages Throughout history, discrimination has wielded its ugly head in many different forms. Things such as, but not limited to, race, religion, appearance, beliefs and gender have consistently oppressed minorities. A continual discrimination that the women of the world are dealing with takes place in what has been promised to be a fair and unprejudiced environment: the work place. This issue deals with women not being paid the same amount of money as men even though they may be equally, if not more soRead MoreThe Wage Gap And Gender Inequality Essay1760 Words   |  8 PagesINTRODUCTION Women as a minority group concerning the wage gap, also known as the gender pay gap, is an older phenomenon that has gradually become more of a topic of concern since the 1960s. The wage gap is recognized as the difference between male and female earnings that is identified as a percentage of male earnings. In 1963 the Equal Pay Act was instituted declaring that it would be illegal to pay women lower wages simply based on their gender. The wage gap remains a popular area of active and innovativeRead MoreGender Wage Gaps And Gender Inequality1115 Words   |  5 PagesAccording to Boris Hirsch and associates, gender wage gaps should vary among densely populated regions and less densely populated regions. Using an estimating Mincerian earnings function that controls for individual characteristics and reflecting the productivity of the worker, we are able to get the ceteris paribus of the gender pay gap that will not be able to be explained by any differences in the productivity of work ers. They also used the approach developed by Oaxaca and Blinder which estimatedRead MoreGender Wage Gap And Gender Inequality855 Words   |  4 Pages In general, the wage gap has narrowed at a slow, and uneven, pace over last three decades. Recent data shows that women in the American workforce earn 77 cents for every dollar a man earns (Trevino). The existence of this â€Å"gender wage gap† has been an issue since women entered the workforce. The ongoing issue of the past has now become an apparent problem in our modern-day, progressive society. Women nowadays have opportunities that were not obtainable in past decades but must overcome, or ignoreRead MoreGender Wage Gap And Gender Inequality Essay912 Words   |  4 Pagespay† by Lanier Isom is about the gender wage gap. The gender wage gap is the difference between male and female earnings. Isom basically states in this article that the wage gap exists because of gender, however many experts state that the wage gap simple does exists do to a factor such as gender, but of multiple factors. These factors being that the statistics presented in favor of a Wage gap ar e incorrect and manipulated to seem correct. That the so called wage gap may be in fact do to the choiceRead MoreGender Wage Gap And Gender Inequality Essay1519 Words   |  7 PagesGender Wage Gap Lydia Ogles November 2016 Introduction/Abstract The gender wage gap has been a nationwide problem since women were able to enter the workforce. Women have begun to speak out more about the issue and evaluate what they can do to change the industries and how they personally present themselves to help this change. Currently there is a wide range of opinions on this issue, with some saying it does not exist while others think it will ruin the economy if not fixed immediately. This makesRead MoreGender Wage Gap And Gender Inequality1697 Words   |  7 Pagesto be paid less wages than men, but this paper will argue in the U.S. today the gender wage gap still exists. The definition of gender wage gap as stated by the U.S. government is defined as women who work full time or salary based jobs who receive less earnings than their male counterparts who work equal level jobs (â€Å"Equal Pay,† n.d.).[] This analysis will focus on the years of 2012 to 2014, and in these years it is clear that the gender wage gap exists. The topic of gender wage gap sociologicallyRead MoreGender Inequality And Gender Wage Gap2375 Words   |  10 PagesThis is known as gender income difference i.e. the ratio of female to male median yearly earnings among full time year round workers. It is also the average difference between men’s and women’s hourly earnings, the gender pay gap has grown from 14.8 per cent last year to 19.7per cent this year, overtime not included.( Warren 2005) .Studies have shown that this gap has increased over the years, hence widening the gap in the society. These figures must act as a wake-up call for the government. Women’s

The Effect Of Cortisol And Sleep On Memory - 1262 Words

Question Bennion, Steinmetz, Kensinger, and Payne (2013) addressed the overarching question of how cortisol, sleep, and emotional arousal interact to influence memory. More specifically, they conducted a study to investigate the following: 1) whether resting levels of the stress hormone cortisol affect memory consolidation differently for emotional versus neutral stimuli, 2) whether this effect differs following a period of sleep versus a period of wakefulness, 3) whether resting cortisol levels affect the relationship between attention to stimuli during encoding and subsequent memory, and 4) whether this effect, too, differs following a period of sleep versus wakefulness. These research questions were used to examine the interaction†¦show more content†¦Although the authors initially presented their hypothesis as a dichotomous outcome, there were several possible alternatives. Elevated cortisol could predict better subsequent memory for neutral stimuli than for negative stimuli or h ave no effect on memory. Cortisol could have a greater effect following the period of wakefulness than the period of sleep, or the Sleep/Wake condition could have no effect. Results could also show only main effects of cortisol, valence, and sleep, with no interaction effects, or cortisol levels could have no significant effect on memory, regardless of the valence of the stimuli or the Sleep/Wake condition. For the two research questions addressed during the second level of the study, Bennion et al. (2013) hypothesized that elevated cortisol at encoding would promote an interaction between attention and consolidation—i.e., that objects viewed for a shorter duration of time would be more likely to be forgotten, and objects viewed for a longer duration would be more likely to be remembered. They also hypothesized that this effect would be greater following the period of sleep, and that neural activity in memory retrieval would be centered on the limbic areas. This hypothesis also makes a reasonable prediction based on prior research suggesting that neural activity for mental retrieval centers on the limbic regions

Supplier Management for Case Study of Challenger -myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theSupplier Management for Case Study of Challenger Company. Answer: Introduction The primary purpose of this essay is to provide a detailed analysis of the three aspects of purchasing operations and management which include supplier selection and purchasing system evaluation, use of information and communication technology in conducting purchasing operations and purchasing cost analysis. Purchasing may be defined as a function of buying goods and services from external sources of a firm. The whole process of purchasing is always conducted by the purchasing department of an organization, (Amidoust, Ahmed, Saghfinia Bahreininejad, 2012). Purchasing management is a key aspect of an organization. Proper purchasing management enables enterprises to make informed decisions on whether to buy or make specific commodities, avoid stock outs, and maintain adequate stock levels, develop good relations with the suppliers and ensure that proper records of all transactions are kept, (Lin, 2012). The selected local retailer Based in Singapore, Challenger has been in operation in IT retail market for over 35 years. This company has received distinct reputation as the only homegrown consumer electronics chain with a large network of about 38 stores located island-wide, (Challenger, 2017). It was established in 1982 and is well known for its strong brand name, strong partnerships with major international brands and attractive. Challenger deals in IT products and accessories entailing brands like Hewlett Packard, Valore, Samsung, Acer, Asus, Canon, Toshiba, Nikon, and Olympus, (Challenger, 2017). The company buys these products from trusted suppliers and then stocks them in its stores, where customers buy them. It also offers services in bulk purchases, free domestic delivery for purchases worth 1000 dollars and above and purchases for occasions and special events like door and corporate gifts, (Challenger, 2017). Challenger mainly targets smartphone and computer users, who are dedicated to deriving value from their purchases, (Hachi.tech, 2017). These consist of students living in urban and rural areas and use Laptops, tablets, and smartphones for their studies and some companies and organizations who buy IT products for office and business purposes. The company's main strategy is based on providing high-quality products so that its clients derive a value for their purchases. The IT Industry faces a stiff competition as there are several companies providing the same IT products, (Rogers, 2016). Some of Challengers competitors include Best Denki Co Ltd., Pertama Holdings Limited and OA System Plaza Co. Ltd, among others. To remain competitive, the company has concentrated on providing high-quality products and venturing in e-commerce through its hachi.tech portal as its major, (Hachi.tech, 2017). It has also practiced partnerships so as to remain strong in the industry. For instance, the company has been working closely with Datapipe, so as to provide high-quality technology solutions, (Challenger, 2017). Challenger sources for its products from trusted suppliers of reputed companies such as Apple, Samsung, Acer, Asus and Toshiba among others. This has enabled it to continually win customer trust for its products. Criteria for supplier selection. According to Chen Chao (2012), suppliers are people who provide the company with different products. Supplier selection is a complex process which involves evaluation of supplier attributes, products, and congruence to the organization's values, (Meena Sermah, 2013). The best suppliers are those who offer goods that match or exceed the requirements of the firm, (Barney, 2012). Therefore, in choosing suppliers, managers must be aware of the specific business needs. Challenger sources its products from different suppliers. It uses multiple sourcing approaches in obtaining supplies (Challenger, 2017). This has enabled it to escape the disadvantages of single sourcing, such as high indirect costs and complacency of single suppliers. The company is, therefore, able to maintain competition, protect its customers during shortages, strikes and emergencies and maintain a strong backup source. The company follows the Peter Krailjics model in managing its supplies. It conducts proper classification of its products, proper market analysis to identify its competitors and consumer needs, strategic positioning of its products and outlay of clear action plans which enable it to source trusted suppliers, (Schulze, Seuring Ewering, 2012). In selecting its suppliers, the company considers the following factors: Competitive pricing: The main aim of Challenger Company is to make profits while providing its clients with high-quality products, (Challenger, 2017). Therefore, it majors on competitive pricing when selecting its suppliers. Normally, the supplier's bid and the company selects the best supplier based on the price range. Product and service quality: The Company sources its products from reputed companies with strong brands. These companies include Acer, Samsung, and Apple among others, (Challenger, 2017). The company, therefore, selects suppliers of high quality and genuine products who would help it maintain its brand reputation. Reliable delivery methods: Challenger Company has a wide range of stores where it stocks its IT products such as Phones, laptops, and Computers for its customers, (Hachi.tech, 2017). It selects suppliers who are able to safely deliver the supplies to its respective stores safely without damages or delays as required. Financial stability and credit strength: Most supplies are always delivered in credit. Challenger also sources its IT products in bulk at wholesale prices and then sells them back to customers at retail prices, (Challenger, 2017). It buys its products on credit, and the financial sustainability of its suppliers forms its major consideration. Criteria to be utilized in supplier selection. Supplier selection criteria Selected supplier functions a) Purchasing strategy The supplier must provide high quality and adequate products that would enable Challenger's customers to obtain a value for their purchases. Social of Processing Identify and understand the background and brand reputation of the supplier firm, so as to ensure quality high brands are obtained Optimisation Aligning suppliers base with Challengers supply chain goals. Keep seeking appropriate techniques and alternative strategies. Identify the quality of products offered by the supplier and whether the supplier offers after sale services. Globalisation Establishing opportunities for international suppliers and embracing diversity. The Company has done this through partnerships and expansion of its internet presence. Sustainability Conducting a continuous review and evaluation of suppliers. Obtaining new suppliers by expanding its range of products to include spare parts and after sale services For example, if the company wants to select Samsung company as one of its suppliers of smartphones, laptops, and appliances, the company will analyze the supplier before making a decision. After selecting the supplier, then the company should ensure that the delivery process is safe and convenient using the following steps: First step: The Company finds suppliers through a competitive bidding. The company then evaluates and selects the best supplier on a competitive basis. Second step: The supplier must meet all the prequalification procedures, (Stadtler, 2015). Normally, the requirements are based on the inventory management system and the reorder levels. Third step: The order is placed using SAP ERP system to selected suppliers. After placing the orders, the system is able to track all the purchases invoices and any payments made to suppliers, (Majadalawieh Marks, 2017). Fourth step: Ensuring that the ordered items are safely delivered and stored in the retail outlets. Fifth step: Inspecting whether all the delivered products are in good condition. The company also inspects the products in terms of specification, quality, and model. Supplier performance can be evaluated using a scorecard as follows: Category Metrics Quality Good quality Correct specifications Correct model Deliver On time delivery Early delivery Late delivery Partial delivery Cost Reduction of total cost per year Reduction of indirect costs Responsiveness Emergency requests can be delivered Compliance with terms of payment Customer complaints Industry capacity Availability of the product Insurance on freight Political events Customer complaints Number of complaints No customer complaints. Appropriate tool for evaluating suppliers. The main aim of Challenger Company is to make profits by buying IT products at competitive prices and then selling them at retail prices to the clients. The company uses SAP ERP system, which is a convenient tool for managing its supplies, (Challenger, 2017). This ensures timely tracking of supplies and ensuring that all transactions with the suppliers are recorded to eliminate inefficiencies, (Challenger, 2017). Although the company benefits from all the advantages of multiple supplier sourcing, I would recommend the company should adopt single suppliers for some of its products. This will enable it to easily achieve economies of scale and get supplies at discounted prices. Single suppliers are also more trusted in times of economic slowdowns as they can easily supply products to the company on credit, (Sawik, 2014). ICT for purchasing activities. SAP ERP system Challenger Company uses SAP ERP system, which allows for interaction between its various departments. ERP system is an important software in every organization as it enables interaction with different departments in the firm such as marketing, supply lines, quality control, and stocks, (Targett, Grimshaw Powell, 2013). It integrates all sections of the company and functions across the whole firm with a single system. The ERP system used by Challenger Ltd enables it to accurately keep track of its transactions. These involve monitoring stock levels in the stores, monitoring sales and assessing human resources, (Challenger, 2017). After the recommendations by Gartner, Challenger also landed on Datapipe, (Challenger, 2017). This is because it needed to avoid the uncertainties involved in automation and other concerns that arise from migrating to cloud environment. The internet marketing portal. As a way of increasing access to customers, many companies have embraced the internet and social media marketing. Challenger Ltd is not an exception to this development. It has tried to embrace internet marketing. This has been manifested through the development of hachi.tech, which is an internet platform, where customers can order products online, (Hachi.tech, 2017). Since the company has majored in e-commerce by developing the hachi.tech portal, I would recommend that it increases its relations with Datapipe's so as to improve the security of its operations in the cloud. The company would then be able to increase its market presence and expand its customer base. It should also combine SAP with Ariba network. This would enable it to strengthen its transactions with its suppliers and discover new business opportunities. SAP combined with Ariba network is a business software which enables adequate purchase management and direction of the entire operations of the workforce system, (Majdalawieh Marks, 2017). It will also be able to manage the entire procurement process and build an ethical supply chain, (Chang, Huang, Chen Hung 2013). Purchasing Cost Analysis. The main reason for conducting a purchasing cost analysis is to test whether the cost of purchasing items is reasonable, (Stadtler, 2015). Prices of commodities charged by the suppliers may fall into three categories- market prices, previous prices, and published prices, (Stadtler, 2015). Challenger as a company acts as a retailer, by purchasing products at wholesale prices and then selling them at a profit, (Challenger, 2017). Therefore it must clearly evaluate the supplier process to determine the cost at which it is able to purchase the products from the suppliers, without making losses. The cost of obtaining products largely dictates the prices at which they are sold. If a company spends less on purchasing its supplies, then it may be able to avail the same goods at lower prices to the consumers, (Bokor Markovits-Somogyi, 2015). Challenger Company uses total cost of ownership (TCO) model to determine the prices of its products, (Challenger, 2017). In this model, cost of products is done with regards to other costs associated with maintenance and ensuring that the products are in good condition, (Mahal Hussain, 2015). These may include service, maintenance, and administration. The benefits enjoyed by Challenger from adopting TCO include ensuring that all the costs associated with the business are identified and incorporated when attaching prices to the products, enhancing overall cost management, through proper cost planning and ensuring that prices of products are achievable by the customers, (Challenger, 2017). Although the company has adopted a TCO approach which is a good cost management tool, it has continued to suffer the disadvantages associated with this tool. These include lack of a uniform method of cost analysis and time wastage in trying to identify all the costs associated with all the cost centers, (Mahal Hussain, 2015). I would, therefore, recommend the company to adopt Activity-based costing approach to assign costs of its supplies. ABC model would enable the company to classify all the costs in their cost centers. In this approach, the managers of the company would be able to identify the specific cost centers so as to classify every cost adequately to avoid confusion and time wastage in conducting a cost analysis, (Bokor Markovits-Somogyi, 2015). In conclusion, Challenger Company is a leading retailer, dealing with IT products. Its competitive strategies which include the provision of high-quality products and use of trusted suppliers have enabled it to maintain high profits. The company also embraces IT in its supply chain management, through use of SAP ERP software. The company also uses proper cost management strategies, through use of total cost of ownership approach to attach prices of its products and select reliable suppliers. However, the company should also select single suppliers for some of the product brands so as to easily enjoy the benefits of receiving goods in bulk such as discounts. The company should also combine its SAP system on Ariba network and increase its relations with Datapipe to alleviate risks associated with automation. Although the company has adopted the total cost of ownership approach in costing its supplies, it should change to ABC approach so as to be more organized and be able to assign every cost to its cost center and avoid the confusion and time wastages associated with TCO. References Amindoust, A., Ahmed, S., Saghafinia, A., Bahreininejad, A. (2012). Sustainable SupplierSelection: A Ranking Model Based on Fuzzy Inference System. Applied Soft Computing,12(6), 1668-1677. Barney, J. B. (2012). Purchasing, Supply Chain Management and Sustained CompetitiveAdvantage: The Relevance of Resource?based Theory. Journal of Supply Chain Management, 48(2), 3-6. Bokor, Z., Markovits-Somogyi, R. (2015). Applying Activity-based Costing to LogisticsService Providers. Periodica Polytechnica. Transportation Engineering, 43(2), 98. Challenger. (2017, September 20). Challenger Help Center. Retrieved from Do You Have an Online Store?: https://support.challenger.sg/hc/en-us/articles/227036668-Do-you-have-an-Online-store- Challenger. (2017, September 20). Challenger Technologies Ltd. Retrieved from About Challenger: https://www.challenger.com.sg/store_locator?storeType=Challenger Chang, Y. K., Huang, C. J., Chen, K. F., Hung, T. M. (2013). Physical Activity and WorkingMemory in Healthy Older Adults: an ERP Study. Psychophysiology, 50(11), 1174-1182. Chen, Y. H., Chao, R. J. (2012). Supplier Selection Using Consistent Fuzzy PreferenceRelations. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(3), 3233-3240. Hachi.tech. (2017, September 20). Hachi.Tech Corporation. Retrieved from Shop full Range of Apple Products: https://www.hachi.tech/Lin, R. H. (2012). An Integrated Model for Supplier Selection under a Fuzzy Situation.International Journal of Production Economics, 138(1), 55-61. Mahal, I., Hossain, M. A. (2015). Activity-Based Costing (ABC)An Effective Tool for Better Management. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting, 6(4), 66-74. Majdalawieh, M., Marks, A. (2017, April). A Reference Framework for Enterprise ComputingCurriculum. In World Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (pp. 872-886).Springer, Cham. Meena, P. L., Sarmah, S. P. (2013). Multiple Sourcing of Supplier Failure Risk and Quantity Discount: A Genetic Algorithm Approach. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 50, 84-97. Rogers, A. D. (2016). Examining Small Business Adoption of Computerized Accounting Systems Using the Technology Acceptance Model (Doctoral Dissertation, Walden University). Sawik, T. (2014). Joint Supplier Selection and Scheduling of Customer Orders under DisruptionRisks: Single vs. Dual Sourcing. Omega, 43, 83-95. Schulze, M., Seuring, S., Ewering, C. (2012). Applying Activity-based Costing in a SupplyChain Environment. International Journal of Production Economics, 135(2), 716-725. Stadtler, H. (2015). Supply Chain Management: An Overview. In Supply Chain Management and Advanced Planning (pp. 3-28). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Targett, D., Grimshaw, D., Powell, P. (2013). IT in Business: A Business Manager's Casebook. Routledge.

Paul the apostle Essay Example For Students

Paul the apostle Essay INTRODUCTIONJohn Wycliff was a theologian and early proponent of reform in the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century. He initiated the first translation of the Bible into the English language and is considered the main precursor of the Protestant Reformation. Wycliff was born at Ipreswell, Yorkshire, England, between 1320 and 1330. He died at Lutterworth December 31, 1384. John Wycliffs family was of early Saxon origin, long settled in Yorkshire. In his day the family was a large one, covering a considerable territory. 1324 is the year usually given for Wycliffs birth. Wycliff probably received his early education close to home. It is not known when he first went to Oxford, with which he was so closely connected till the end of his life. He was at Oxford in about 1345, when a series of illustrious names was adding glory to the fame of the university, such as those of Roger Bacon, Robert Grosseteste, Thomas Bradwardine, William of Occam, and Richard Fitzralph. Wycliff owed much to Occam. He showed an interest in natural science and mathematics, but applied himself to the study of theology, ecclesiastical law, and philosophy. Even Wycliffs opponents acknowledged the keenness of his dialectic. Wycliffs writings prove that he was well grounded in Roman and English law, as well as in native history. A family whose seat was in the neighborhood of Wycliffs home, Bernard Castle, founded Balliol College, Oxford to which Wycliffe belonged, first as scholar, then as master. He attained the headship no later than 1360. When he was presented by the college (1361) with the parish of Fylingham in Lincolnshire, he had to give up the leadership of Balliol, though he could continue to live at Oxford. His university career followed the usual course. While as baccalaureate he busied himself with natural science and mathematics, as master he had the right to read in philosophy. More significant was his interest in Bible study, which he pursued after becoming bachelor in theology. His performance led Simon Islip, Archbishop of Canterbury, to place him at the head of Canterbury Hall in 1365. Between 1366 and 1372 he became a doctor of theology. In 1368 he gave up his living at Fylingham and took over the rectory of Ludgershall in Buckinghamshire, not far from Oxford, which enabled him to retain his connection with the university. It was not as a teacher or preacher that Wycliffe gained his position in history; this came from his activities in ecclesiastical politics, in which he engaged about the mid-1370s, when his reformatory work also began. In 1374 he was among the English delegates at a peace congress at Bruges. He may have been given this position because of the spirited and patriotic behavior with which in the year 1366 he sought the interests of his country against the demands of the papacy. It seems he had a reputation as a patriot and reformer; this suggests the answer to the question how he came to his reformatory ideas. Even if older evangelical parties did not exist in England before Wycliffe, he might easily have been influenced by continental evangelicals who abounded. It is highly probable that the older type of doctrine and practice represented by the Iro-Scottish Christians of the pre-Roman time persisted till the time of Wycliffe and reappeared in Lollardism.The root of the Wycliffes reform ation movement must be traced to his Bible study and to the ecclesiastical-political lawmaking of his times. He was well acquainted with the tendencies of the ecclesiastical politics to which England owed its position. He had studied the proceedings of King Edward I of England, and had attributed to them the basis of parliamentary opposition to papal usurpations. He found them a model for methods of procedure in matters connected with the questions of worldly possessions and the Church. Many sentences in his book on the Church recall the institution of the commission of 1274, which caused problems for the English clergy. He considered that the example of Edward I should be born in mind by the government of his time; but that the aim should be a reformation of the entire ecclesiastical establishment. Similar was his position on the enactments induced by the ecclesiastical politics of Edward III, with which he was well acquainted, which are fully reflected in his political tracts.Wycl iffe wanted to see his ideas actualizedhis fundamental belief was that the Church should be poor, as in the days of the apostles. He had not yet broken with the mendicant friars, and from these John of Gaunt chose Wycliffes defenders. While the Reformer later claimed that it was not his purpose to incite temporal lords to confiscation of the property of the Church, the real tendencies of the propositions remained unconcealed. The result of the same doctrines in Bohemiathat land which was richest in ecclesiastical foundationswas that in a short time the entire church estate was taken over and a revolution brought about in the relations of temporal holdings. It was in keeping with the plans of Gaunt to have a personality like Wycliffe on his side. Especially in London the Reformers views won support; partisans of the nobility attached themselves to him, and the lower orders gladly heard his sermons. He preached in city churches, and London rang with his praises. The first to oppose hi s theses were monks of those orders which held possessions, to whom his theories were dangerous. Oxford and the episcopate were later blamed by the Curia, which charged them with so neglecting their duty that the breaking of the evil fiend into the English sheepfold could be noticed in Rome before it was in England. Wycliffe was summoned before William Courtenay, bishop of London, on Feb. 19, 1377, in order to explain the wonderful things which had streamed forth from his mouth. The exact charges are not known, as the matter did not get as far as a definite examination. Gaunt, the earl marshal Henry Percy, and a number of other friends accompanied Wycliffe, and four begging friars were his advocates. A crowd gathered at the church, and at the entrance of the party animosities began to show, especially in an angry exchange between the bishop and the Reformers protectors. Gaunt declared that he would humble the pride of the English clergy and their partisans, hinting at the intent to secularize the possessions of the Church. Most of the English clergy were irritated by this encounter, and attacks upon Wycliffe began, finding their response in the second and third books of his work dealing with civil government. These books carry a sharp polemic, hardly surprising when it is recalled that his opponents charged Wycliffe with blasphemy and scandal, pride and heresy. He appeared to have openly advised the secularization of English church property, and the dominant parties shared his conviction that the monks could better be controlled if they were relieved from the care of secular affairs. The bitterness occasioned by this advice will be better understood when it is remembered that at that time the papacy was at war with the Florentines and was in dire straits. The demand of the Minorites that the Church should live in poverty as it did in the days of the apostles was not pleasing in such a crisis. It was under these conditions that Pope Gregory XI, who in January, 1377, had gone from Avignon to Rome, sent, on May 22 five copies of his bull against Wycliffe, despatching one to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the others to the bishop of London, Edward III, the chancellor, and the university; among the enclosures were 18 theses of his, which were denounced as erroneous and dangerous to Church and State.The reformatory activities of Wycliffe effectively began here: all the great works, especially his Summa theologiae, are closely connected with the condemnation of his 18 theses, while the entire literary energies of his later years rest upon this foundation. The next aim of his opponentsto make him out a revolutionary in politicsfailed. The situation in England resulted in damage to them; on June 21, 1377, Edward III died. His successor was Richard II, a boy, who was under the influence of John of Gaunt, his uncle. So it resulted that the bull against Wycliffe did not become public till Dec. 18. Parliament, which met in October, came into sharp conflict with the Curia. Among the propositions which Wycliffe, at the direction of the government, worked out for parliament was one which speaks out distinctly against the exhaustion of England by the Curia.Wycliffe tried to gain public favour by laying his theses before parliament, and then made them public in a tract, accompanied by explanations, limitations, and interpretations. After the session of parliament was over, he was called upon to answer, and in March, 1378, he appeared at the episcopal palace at Lambeth to defend himself. The preliminaries were not yet finished when a noisy mob gathered with the purpose of saving him; the kings mother, Joan of Kent, also took up his cause. The bishops, who were divided, satisfied themselves with forbidding him to speak further on the controversy. At Oxford the vice chancellor, following papal directions, confined the Reformer for some time in Black Hall, from which Wycliffe was released on threats from his friends; the vice-chancel lor was himself confined in the same place because of his treatment of Wycliffe. The latter then took up the usage according to which one who remained for 44 days under excommunication came under the penalties executed by the State, and wrote his De incarcerandis fedelibus, in which he demanded that it should be legal for the excommunicated to appeal to the king and his council against the excommunication; in this writing he laid open the entire case and in such a way that it was understood by the laity. He wrote his 33 conclusions, in Latin and English. The masses, some of the nobility, and his former protector, John of Gaunt, rallied to him.Before any further steps could be taken at Rome, Gregory XI died (1378). But Wycliffe was already engaged in one of his most important works, that dealing with the truth of Holy Scripture. The sharper the strife became, the more Wycliffe had recourse to Scripture as the basis of all Christian doctrinal opinion, and expressly proved this to be t he only norm for Christian faith. In order to refute his opponents, he wrote the book in which he showed that Holy Scripture contains all truth and, being from God, is the only authority. He referred to the conditions under which the condemnation of his 18 theses was brought about; and the same may be said of his books dealing with the Church, the office of king, and the power of the popeall completed within the space of two years (1378-79). Wycliffe wrote, The Church is the totality of those who are predestined to blessedness. It includes the Church triumphant in heaven and the Church militant or men on earth. No one who is eternally lost has part in it. There is one universal Church, and outside of it there is no salvation. Its head is Christ. No pope may say that he is the head, for he can not say that he is elect or even a member of the Church.