The Unity of Northern and Southern America Essay Example for Free

The hotshot of Federal and southerly America EssayThe attempt of the southern States to secede from the Ameri deal Federation in 1861, created a dangerous crisis in the history of America. The crisis turned into an inner war and, by the superior military power of the Center, they had to be kept within the Federation as integral disclose of the country which was, at that time, already moving towards plenty and prosperity. It was a complex process, and the Yankee Federal political sympathies re bothy showed some extraordinary skills in order to bring the southern defend into the political system Historical BackgroundIn 1776, under the brilliant leadership of George Washington, 13 British Colonies in America united together and achieved a glorious freedom. On November 15, 1777, a confederation was created in order to provide for general defense, securities for their liberties and for their mutual and general welfare in the future. But the system had umpteen loopholes and, hence, soon the leaders felt that the system must be either revised or superseded by a new one. Thus, the Philadelphia Convention was held in May 1787 which introduced a full fledged Federation for fosterage a sense of unity among the units.According to K. C. Wheare, The fear of military insecurity and the consequent need of common defense, a desire to be independent of foreign power and the need of economic prosperity etcetera have encouraged modern nations to form Federations (Wheare). Naturally, it needs unity among the federal units and the supremacy of the study Government. In the view of Bernard Schwartz, The American system has properly ensured those arrangements. (Schwartz). In 1819, Chief Justice Marshall established the philosophy of federal supremacy in the case of McCulloch v.Maryland and it was declared in the case of Texas v. White (1869) that magnetic northern and grey Unity 3 America was an undestroyable union, composed of indestructible states. So, no unit c an secede from it and, an attempt to do so can be failed by the superior power of the Center. The Crisis until at one time the crisis came up in 1861 when the civilized war broke out with a threat to the very population of the Federation. Of course, a conflict amid the north and the South was inevitable and this is a real wonder that how the sectionalization could have been avoided for such a yen period of time.In detail, ever since the formation of the Union, the units of the North and the South were cross-purposes. Ostensibly, the war centered round the institution of slavery but, in fact, it was involved with much bigger issues of political and economic affairs as well. There was a strong reason for which the Southern states intended to vacate the Union. While the North was highly industrialized, the South depended upon Agriculture and the finished goods from the North. Moreover, the South needed the slaves for agriculture, but the North was in favor of their emancipati on.The cotton-growing South, irritated by the growing threat of Abolitionist Movement, and fearing this predominance in the relation back, began to lambaste of secession from the union (Wells). In short, the interests were very much conflicting. Gradually, the idea state- set gained ground and the Southern states began to think that it was trivial to remain in the Federation. As their political fear along with the economic grudge mixed up, the reality of the Federation was seriously at stake. Finally, the election of Abraham Lincoln as the chairman of America in the socio-economic class 1866 brought the matter to a head.His success in the election was taken to be the ominous sign of a triumph of the slave-abolitionists and thus, everything rapidly drifted from bad to worse leading to a five-year war in 1861. Federal and Southern Unity 4 The War It is during this crucial time that the quality of the presidential leadership was seriously tested. As Sidney Warren has observed, A braham Lincoln, reacting boldly to the challenge of rebellion non only enlarged the constitutional role of brass in times of crisis but invested the office with the attribute of moral leadership (Warren).He believed that the Federation could not be broken up by the Southern states in this charge and, in order to honor it intact, military measures were to be adopted with unbending tenacity and firm determination. Resultantly, the South was defeated, and the Federation was preserved. It is a fact that the South began well and initially it achieved a number of victories. But the failure to capture Maryland was a turning point of the war. Lincoln immediately seized the opportunity to proclaim the emancipation of slaves in the rebellious states. It was authentically a master-stroke, because the slaves in the Southern zone now began to support the President.And, moreover, it won the sympathy of foreign nations with the dissolving agent that, since then, the rebels failed to win any outside assistance. Reconstruction Policy and the South After the civil war, the fundamental labor of the Central Government was to adopt a proper policy of reconstruction and re-union with a view to change the American Federation. But out-of-pocket to various reasons, the task was a complex one. The sad assassination of President Lincoln made it amply clear that the fanatics were strongly opposed to a progressive policy. He, indeed, had hated slavery and desired its abolition.But he actually fought for Union and not for the emancipation of the slaves as such. His primary Northern and Southern Unity 5 purpose was to protect and preserve the unity of the Federation by thwart the disintegrating attitude of the South. So, after the end of the civil war, the Primary Task of the new President, Andrew Johnson, was to carry out a generous conciliation as advocated by his predecessor. But the victorious North, mindful of its possess loss due to the war, was by no means conciliatory in its attitude towards the South. At least initially, the states of the North were in favor of adopting a policy of retaliation (L.Mukherjee). So, bitter quarrels broke out between the President and Congress which was dominated by the Republicans. As a matter of fact, the party-system of America was, during this time, almost localized and the Republican caller had no strong base in the south. This is also a reason for which it did not, initially, take much veneration for the interests of the South. The Reconstruction Act of 1867-68 provided that the Southern states should be treated as the conquered provinces to be administered by the military Governors and were to be readmitted to the Federation after they ratified the fourteenth amendment of the constitution.As some of the states withheld such ratification, the Congress holded to subject the South to Negro-rule under military protection. Naturally, the Negroes took the advantage of this provision and the reign of Black Terror cam e into being. But gradually, a grassroots change ushered in primarily due to political and constitutional measures. Politically, the Southern states came to realize that the Federation was indestructible and any such attempt to break it would surely end in vain. The Federation was protected and it was taught to all that the units of and nobody, however mighty and powerful, had the right to break it up.The civil war also established the fact that the Center, though dominated by the Northern Northern and Southern Unity 6 states, was, for ensuring Federal unity entitle to adopt strict military measures. Such realization slowly infused in the South the idea of national unity and solidarity. Similarly, the Northern states rectified their earlier stand and accepted the Southern states as the integral part of the Federation. In this panache the South were brought back into the Union and the rebels were taught to be devoted citizens. Of course, the party-system also helped much in the gr owth of such unity.Gradually the Republican Party expanded its organizations in the South and the, eventually, it too acted as a unifying force. Constitutionally, too, the process was towards unification. As O. P Goyal observes, The 13th (1865), 14th (1868) and 15th (1870) amendments grew out of the civil war (Goyal). The 13th amendment abolished slavery which so long appeared as a bone of content between the South and the North. The 14th amendment defined citizenship and forbade states to deprive persons of life, liberty and property without due process of law.The abolition of the institution of slavery has brought about the emancipation of billions of people who had so long forced to remain as the casualties of modern civilization. The Negroes, who had suffered much due to racial hatred, were now placed in power and position. In this way the people of the North and South were brought in a state of equality. The 15th amendment forbade the Governments, both central and provincial, f rom abridging the right to vote because of race, color, residence or other previous conditions of servitude.Thus the concept of equality and liberty was upheld by the constitution and, naturally, the vast majority of the Southern people who so long nurtured a grudge against the center, became loyal and submissive. The republic was, however, strengthened by the civil war. America emerged out of it with a new spirit, hope and vigor. It now adopted a bold policy France was forced to withdraw Northern and Southern Unity 7 its army from Mexico and Britain was persuaded to compensate for the American loss in the Alabama issue. This political factor had its influence on the economic side too.The Center, still dominated by the North, showed a practical sense in this matter. The Government adopted a policy which encouraged rapid industrialization and this scheme largely helped the South to proceed towards prosperity. As stated earlier, the slave-dependent society of the South now became mu ch more rational in their draw close and concentrated on the system of rational industrialization. Due to the abolition of the slave-system, and the new spirit of industrialization, they broke up the big estates and invested in the industrialization process.Thus an economy of cotton-cultivation gave way to the industrial revolution. They now manufactured their own goods and the spread of railways expanded their markets and also united them with the North. In the place of localism, a new feeling of solidarity and federation of interests grew up. In this way the North and the South united together and formed a strong Federation. quick industrialization not only improved the living standard of the South, but also ensured a regional balance in the economy. Conclusion Thus the defeat of the South in the civil war is a landmark in the American history.It marked an era of new spirit of unity and solidarity which enriched the life of the Americans in different ways. Its resources were im mensely developed and the country rapidly marched towards the goal of plenty and prosperity. Particularly, the defeat of the Southern-localism soon produced a sense of common citizenship and brotherhood which acted as the basis of subsequent affluence and tranquility. Northern and Southern Unity 8 In fact, the changed attitude of the North immensely helped to strengthen the Federation and, in such a favorable political climate, the Center adopted various measures in order to woo the people of the South.In this way, the process of unification smoothly proceeded after a temporary halt during the aforesaid conflict. However, Harold J. Laski one condemned the American system as an obsolescent federalism. According to him, it denied rapidity of action and rested upon compacts and compromises (Laski). But there is no wonder in it. It must be remembered that it is composed of a number of separate units which, for a long time, had remained isolated from each other under the British rule. Na turally, their economic system, political attitude, social structure and the way of life were divergent.The civil war clearly brought out such inherent differences. But in venom of a war between two parts of the Federation, the pragmatism of the North and the adaptability of the South eminently bridged the disconnection and thus, an integrated and unified Federation of America came out of the civil war. Northern and Southern Unity 9ReferencesGoyal, O. P. (1985). Comparative Government, McCurillan Press, India, p. 172 Laski, H. J. (May 1939). The Obsolescence of Federation, New Republic, Vol. 98, p. 367-69

Impact of a major change at Blacks Essay Example for Free

Impact of a major diversity at Blacks EssayAs I also stated in my introduction there have been many changes at Blacks recently in the last few months. Blacks are a slightly new business but have already become on of the UKs leading suppliers of outdoor gear. Since open up they have generated high revenue and have been highly profitable every year. Every year Blacks trounce the previous year in sales which shows that their market character is also increasing.As Blacks looked at their pecuniary status at the beginning of the year and looked at their objectives there was suddenly an prospect in the market. competition called Outdoors, who supply similar products to Blacks for camping was in financial crisis. The only way for Blacks to increase their market share is to close in on competitors.Blacks saw their opportunity and starting acquire Outdoors shares. Before buying shares though Blacks approached Outdoors and asked if they would be willing to comply with a friendly take over, but they jilted hoping that there financial crisis would be resolved. It soon became obvious that they were in too much debt so Blacks seized their opportunity and bought them out.A hostile putsch was imposed and there was nonhing the firm could do. They tried to resist the takeover bid but could not manage the finances. The board of directors did their best to ensure shareholders that their interests would be best defend with the current board but many fledThey are now in the process of changing these stores into Blacks stores. The importation of this change has had a big effect on both Blacks employees and Outdoors employees. There were feelings of fear as to what will happen with so many job that and who would work in the new stores.In put together to show compassion to the existing workers of Outdoors it was decided that they were going to keep the majority of workers and only stag a few redundant that had little product knowledge or were just simply not needed . However the staffs were assured that changes would be made in the culture so as to meet the demand level of customer service that Blacks offer. This caused some unrest as they resisted to changesDue to workers being let go some rumours got around through to Blacks stores that existing Blacks employees whitethorn have been dropped. However it was just a rumour that fizzled out and started with no real reliable source.This was one main change that happened at Blacks. Another was the change of manager at the beginning of the year. As I have already stated the change in manager has not been the best to date. The new manger has adopted an autocratic style of management. This leaves no lacuna for ideas to be shared or any participation in decision making.As a allow for of this many workers were threatening to leave as before the manger had come we were constantly making fillip by reaching our targets. Since he came though, we have not been able to make target because the workers a re de-motivated. shipway of handling Resistance to ChangeThe new changes at Blacks have affected the natural order of things at the workplace, for example, new working practices will be introduced, staff have been made redundant and some staff may be re-located to new stores.This in itself will lead a natural resistance to change, so the question is how should managers handle this resistance to change? I will propose six easy travel1. Managers should keep workers informed at each stage as to what is going to happen. This can be make by having-regular staff meetings-regular discussions-issue bulletins-team briefings2. Managers need to involve workers in the decision making process. This way it helps them to feel a part of the organisation3. Take steps to avoid rumours spreading and misinformation circulating within and outside the lodge4. Set up works council where worker representatives can meet with senior management and discuss issues pertaining to the emerging of the business 5. Invest in training to enable workers to cope with change, also offer counselling to the workers who may need to be made redundant6. Review the organisational culture to ensure it fits with the future plans for the business

Acts of Rebellion Essay Example for Free

Acts of Rebellion EssayIn 1984, Orwell presents the act of revolt through hit the sack. Listen. The more men youve had, the most I love you. Do you figure that? this whole quote suggest that they are both rebelling, crockeding that Julia has already rebelled in the past by having fetch up with other men. Also Winston is declaring that the more she rebels the more he would love her, which is also an act of rebellion in itself because love is unauthorized, by Big Brother. The most could suggest that Winston is encouraging everyone to rebel against Big Brother, which could mean that as Julia loves Winston, he is taking advantage of her by telling her that whatever Julia is doing is right that he is all in all supporting her. Additionally this could mean that he wanted more people to be corrupt, and everyone to go to the defile path and disobey Big Brother. Orwell presents the act of rebellion through love because in the Dystopian nine there are strict rule that need to be fol lowed, such as no having sex for pleasure, and this is clearly an act of rebellion as Julia had sex with lots of party member.Similarly in Romeo and Juliet where Shakespeare is presenting their love by rebelling, they are both willing to disobey the orders of the wise ones just to be with each other. hence stay yet thou needst not to be gone proposes that Juliet is stubborn, as the Daughter of Capu allow she is used to start what she wants. Additionally Romeo declares to her Let me taen, let me be put to death This could emphasise that he is willing to peter out for Juliet and stay with her than live his life without her, this clearly shows that he is rebelling against all the rules put upon them, just to stay with Juliet. non to be gone could suggest that Juliet is being bossy as she is ordering him to stay with her. But or else this could highlight that as men in the Elizabethan had power over women, and they were patriarchal meaning that Juliet was a bad influence on Romeo, and that she was almost a threat to his manhood. As he accepts defeat Romeo says let me put to death which could declare that Juliet is Romeos weakness and that if someone breaks Juliet, Romeo will also shatter.

El estudio de proyectos

El estudio de proyectos1 EL ESTUDIO DE PROYECTOS1.1 Pre space-reflection symmetrycin y evaluacin de proyectosUn proyecto es la bsqueda de una solucin inteligente al planteamiento de un problema tendiente a resolver, entre tantos, una necesidad humana. El proyecto surge como respuesta a una idea que busca la solucin de un problema o la manera de aprovechar una oportunidad de negocios.Al pre mirror symmetrytrooperr y evaluar un proyecto se pretende en purlointrar la mejor solucin al problema e sneakmico que se ha planteado, y as shirkseguir que se disponga de antecedentes y la informacin necesaria check bit asignar racionalmente los recursos escasos a la alternativa de solucin ms eficiente y viable frente a una necesidad humana percibida.La Pre-inversin get wordsta de state of matter etapas. La primera etapa es la Pre space-reflection symmetrycin del proyecto, es decir, se determina magnitud de la inversin, los costos y beneficios. La segunda etapa es la Evaluacin del proyecto, en otras palabras, se mide la rentabilidad de la inversin.Las causas del fracaso o del xito pueden ser* Cambios tecnolgicos* Cambios en el swipetexto poltico cambios de gobierno o variaciones e buncomicas.* Cambios en las relaciones comerciales internacionales* Inestabilidad de la naturaleza* Entorno institucional* Normativa legal1.2 La toma de decisiones asociadas con un proyectoNo existe una concepcin rgida definida en trminos de establecer mecanismos precisos en la toma de decisiones asociadas con un proyecto. No obstante, resulta obvio se aliform que la adopcin de decisiones exige disponer de un sinnmero de antecedentes que permitan que esta se efecte inteligentemente.Lo natural en la toma de decisiones es que stas se encuentran cimentadas en antecedentes bsicos concretos que hagan que se adopten concienzudamente y con el ms pleno conocimiento de las distintas variables que entran en juego.Evaluacin de proyectos consisten entonces, en un conjunto de antecedentes justificatorios, mediante los cuales se establecen las ventajas y desventajas que tiene la asignacin de recursos parity bit una idea o un objetivo determinado.1.3 Tipologa de los proyectosUno de los primeros problemas que se observan al evaluar un proyecto es la gran diversidad de tipos de proyectos que se pueden encontrar, dependiendo tanto del objetivo de estudio, como de la finalidad de la inversin.Segn el objetivo o finalidad del estudio, de acuerdo con lo que se espera medir con la evaluacin, es posible identificar 3 tipos de proyectos que obligan a conocer 3 formas de obtener los flujos de caja parity lograr el resultado de seado1. Estudios para medir la rentabilidad del proyecto, es decir, del total de la inversin, independientemente de dnde provengan los fondos.2. Estudios para medir la rentabilidad de los recursos propios invertidos en el proyecto.3. Estudios para medir la capacidad del propio proyecto para enfrentar los compromisos de pago asumidos en un eventual endeudamiento para su r ealizacin. conservation of parity el evaluador de proyectos es necesario y fundamental diferenciar entre la rentabilidad del proyecto y la rentabilidad del inversionista. La rentabilidad del proyecto es la que busca medir la rentabilidad del negocio independientemente de quien lo haga, mientras que la rentabilidad del inversionista es la que busca medir la rentabilidad de los recursos propios del inversionista en la eventualidad de que se lleve a cabo el proyecto.Segn la finalidad o el objeto de la inversin, es decir, del objetivo de la asignacin de recursos es posible distinguir entrea) Proyectos que buscan crear nuevos negocios en este caso, la evaluacin se concentrar en determinar todos los costos y beneficios asociados directamente con la inversin.b) Proyectos que buscan evaluar un cambio, mejora o modernizacin de empresas ya existentes solo considerar aquellos que son relevantes para la decisin que se deber tomar.a. Un proyecto de modernizacin puede incluiri. Externalidadii. In ternalizaciniii. Reemplazoiv. Ampliacinv. Abandono1.4 La evaluacin de proyectosSi se encarga la evaluacin de un mismo proyecto a dos especialistas diferentes, seguramente ambos resultados sern distintos por el hecho de que la evaluacin se basa en estimaciones de lo que se espera sean en el futuro los beneficios y costos que se asocian a un proyecto.La evaluacin de proyectos pretende medir objetivamente ciertas magnitudes cuantitativas resultantes del estudio del proyecto, y dan origen a operaciones matemticas que permiten diferentes coeficientes de evaluacin. Lo realmente decisivo es poder plantear premisas y supuestos vlidos que hayan sido sometidos a convalidacin a travs de distintos mecanismos y tcnicas de comprobacin.Por otra parte la clara definicin de cul es el objetivo que se persigue con la evaluacin constituye un elemento clave para tener en cuenta en la correcta seleccin del criterio evaluativo. Un proyecto puede tener diferentes apreciaciones desde el punto de vista priva do y el social.Cualquiera que sea el marco en el que el proyecto est inserto, siempre ser posible medir los costos de las distintas alternativas de asignacin de recursos a travs de un criterio econmico que permita, en definitiva, conocer las ventajas y desventajas cualitativas y cuantitativas que implica la asignacin de los recursos escasos a un determinado proyecto de inversin.2 EL PROCESO DE PREPARACIN Y EVALUACIN DE PROYECTOSEl Estudio del proyecto pretende contestar el interrogante de si es o no conveniente realizar una determinada inversin. El estudio de viabilidad debe simular con el mximo de precisin lo que sucedera con el proyecto si este fuera implementado.2.1 Alcances del estudio de proyectosEn trminos generales, son varios los estudios particulares que deben realizarse para evaluar un proyecto los de viabilidad comercial, tcnica, legal, organizacional, de impacto ambiental y financiera. Por lo regular, el estudio de una inversin se centra en la viabilidad econmica o finan ciera, y toma el resto de las variables nicamente como referencia.Estudio de viabilidad comercial indicara si el mercado es sensible o no al bien producido u ofrecido por el proyecto y la aceptabilidad que tendra en su consumo o uso, permitiendo determinar la postergacin o rechazo de un proyecto sin tener que asumir los costos que implica un estudio econmico completo.Estudio de viabilidad tcnica analiza las posibilidades materiales, fsicas o qumicas de producir el bien o servicio que desea generarse con el proyecto.Estudio de viabilidad legal asegurar la existencia o ausencia de restricciones de carcter legal que impediran el funcionamiento del proyecto.Estudio de viabilidad organizacional su objetivo es definir si existen condiciones mnimas necesarias para garantizar la viabilidad de la implementacin, tanto estructural como lo funcional.Estudio de viabilidad financiera determina su aprobacin o rechazo, mire la rentabilidad que retorna la inversin, medido con ft monetaria.Estudio d e viabilidad del impacto ambiental encontrar las normas impuestas en materia de regulacin ambiental para impedir futuros impactos negativos derivados de una eventual compensacin del dao causado por una inversin.2.2 El estudio de proyecto como proceso cclicoEl proceso de un proyecto reconoce 4 grandes etapas idea, preinversin, inversin y operacin.Idea puede enfrentarse sistemticamente bajo una modalidad de gerencia de beneficios, es decir, donde la organizacin est estructurada operacionalmente bajo un esquema de bsqueda permanente de nuevas ideas de proyectos.Preinversin se realizan los 3 estudios de viabilidadPerfil se elabora a partir tanto de la informacin existente, como del juicio comn y de la opinin que da la experiencia. En el estudio del perfil se busca determinar si existe alguna razn que justifique el abandono de una idea antes de que se destinen recursos.Prefactibilidad profundiza en la investigacin, y se basa en informacin de fuentes secundarias para definir las variables principales referidas al mercado, a las alternativas tcnicas de produccin y a la capacidad financiera de los inversionistas, entre otros. Se caracteriza fundamentalmente por descartar soluciones con mayores elementos de juicio. Como resultado de este estudio, sufre la recomendacin de aprobacin, abandono o postergacin.Factibilidad se elabora sobre la base de antecedentes precisos obtenidos mayoritariamente a travs de fuentes de informacin majorrias. Este estudio constituye el paso final de la etapa de preinversin.El estudio de proyectos, cualquiera que sea la profundidad con que se realice, distingue dos grandes etapas la de formulacin y preparacin, y la de evaluacin. La primera tiene dos objetivos definir todas las caractersticas que tengan algn grado de efecto en el flujo de ingresos y egresos monetarios del proyecto y calcular su magnitud. La segunda etapa, busca determinar la rentabilidad de la inversin en el proyecto.En la etapa de evaluacin, es posible distinguir tres sub-eta pas1. Medicin de la rentabilidad del proyecto2. Anlisis de las variables cualitativas3. Sensibilizacin del proyectoEl anlisis completo de un proyecto requiere de por lo menos la realizacin de cuatro estudios complementarios de mercado, tcnico, organizacional-administrativo-legal y financiero.2.3 Estudio tcnico del proyectoTiene como objeto proveer informacin para cuantificar el monto de las inversiones y de los costos de operacin pertinentes a esta rea. Una de genus Sus conclusiones de este estudio es que se deber definir la funcin de produccin que optimice el empleo de los recursos disponibles en la produccin del bien o servicio del proyecto. victimize este estudio se determinaran los requerimientos de equipos de fbrica para la operacin y el monto de la inversin correspondiente. La descripcin del proceso productivo posibilitar conocer las materias primas y los insumos restantes que este demandar.La definicin del tamao del proyecto es fundamental para la determinacin de las inversio nes y los costos que se derivan del estudio tcnico. Las interrelaciones entre decisiones de carcter tcnico se complican al tener que combinarse con decisiones derivadas de los restantes estudios particulares del proyecto.2.4 El estudio de mercadoMuchos costos de operacin pueden preverse simulando la situacin futura y especificando las polticas y los procedimientos que se utilizaran como estrategia comercial. Decisiones como el precio de introduccin, las inversiones para fortalecer una imagen, el acondicionamiento de los locales de venta en funcin de los requerimientos observados en el estudio de los clientes potenciales y las polticas de crdito recomendadas por el mismo estudio, pueden constituirse en variables pertinentes para el resultado de la evaluacin.Metodolgicamente se deben estudiar 4 aspectosa) El consumidor y las demandas del mercado y del proyecto, actuales y proyectadas.El anlisis del consumidor tiene por objeto caracterizar a los consumidores actuales y potenciales, ide ntificando sus preferencias, hbitos de consumo, motivaciones, etc., para obtener un perfil sobre el cual pueda basarse la estrategia comercial.El anlisis de la demanda cuantifica el volumen de bienes o servicios que el consumidor podra adquirir de la produccin del proyecto.b) La competencia y las ofertas del mercado y del proyecto, actuales y proyectadas.El estudio de la competencia es fundamental ya que la estrategia que se defina para el proyecto puede ser indiferente a esta. Es preciso conocer las estrategias que sigue la competencia para aprovechar sus ventajas y evitar sus desventajas.c) La comercializacin del producto o servicio generado por el proyectoDeben tomarse decisiones sobre polticas de ventas y de crdito, intereses, precio, canales de distribucin, marca, estrategia publicitaria, inversiones en creacin de la imagen, etc.d) Proveedores y la disponibilidad y el precio de los insumos, actuales y proyectados.Se debe determinar la disponibilidad de insumos y el precio que d ebe pagarse para su abastecimiento.2.5 El estudio organizacional-administrativo-legalPara cada proyecto es posible definir la estructura organizativa que ms se adapte a los requerimientos de su posterior operacin. Conocer esta estructura es fundamental para definir las necesidades de person-to-person calificado para la gestin y por tanto, estimar con mayor precisin los costos indirectos de la mano de obra ejecutiva.La decisin de desarrollar internamente actividades que pudieran subcontratarse influye directamente en los costos por la mayor cantidad de personal que pudiera necesitarse, la mayor inversin en oficinas y equipamiento y el mayor costo en materiales y otros insumos.Los aspectos legales pueden restringir la localizacin y obligar a mayores costos de transporte, o bien pueden otorgar franquicias para incentivar el desarrollo de determinadas zonas geogrficas donde el beneficio que obtendra el proyecto superara los mayores costos de transporte. Uno de los efectos ms directos d e los factores legales y reglamentarios se refiere a los aspectos tributarios.2.6 El estudio financieroSus objetivos son ordenar y sistematizar la informacin de carcter monetario que proporcionan las etapas anteriores, elaborar los cuadros analticos y datos adicionales para la evaluacin del proyecto y evaluar los antecedentes para determinar la rentabilidad.La sistematizacin de la informacin financiera consiste en identificar y ordenar todos los tems de inversiones, costos e ingresos que puedan deducirse de los estudios previos.Los ingresos de operacin se deducen de la informacin de precios y demanda proyectada, calculados en el estudio de mercado, de las condiciones de venta, de las estimaciones de venta de residuos y del clculo de ingresos por venta de equipos cuyo reemplazo esta previsto durante el periodo de evaluacin del proyecto, segn antecedentes que pudieran derivarse de los estudios tcnicos, organizacional y de mercado.Los costos de operacin se calculan con la informacin de prcticamente todos los estudios anteriores. La evaluacin del proyecto se realiza sobre la estimacin del flujo de caja de los costos y beneficios. El resultado de la evolucin se mide por medio de distintos criterios que, ms que operativos, son complementarios entre s.2.7 El estudio del impacto ambientalSe sugiere introducir en la evaluacin de proyectos las normas ISO 14,000 las cuales consisten en una serie de procedimientos asociados con dar a los consumidores una mejora ambiental continua de los productos y servicios que proporcionara la inversin, asociada con los menores costos futuro de una eventual reparacin de los daos causados sobre el medio ambiente. La gestin del impacto ambiental se tiende a la bsqueda de un proceso continuo de mejoramiento ambiental de toda la cadena de produccin.El estudio de impacto ambiental como parte de la evaluacin econmica de un proyecto no ha sido lo suficientemente tratado, aunque se observan avances sustanciales en el ltimo tiempo. Una tipologa de estudios de impacto ambiental permite identificar tres tipos1. Cualitativos identifica, analizan y explican los impactos positivos y negativos que podra causar al ambiente la implementacin del proyecto.2. Cualitativo numricos relaciona factores de ponderacin en escala de valores numricos a las variables ambientales.3. Cuantitativos determinan tanto los costos asociados con las medidas de mitigacin total o parcial como los daos evitados, incluyendo ambos efectos dentro de los flujos de caja proyectados.Existen distintos mtodos que permiten incorporar el factor monetario al efecto ambientala) Mtodo de valoracin contingente busca determinar la disposicin a pagar de las personas por los beneficios que se espera produzca el proyecto.b) Mtodo del costo evitado considera que el costo asociado con una externalidad debe ser asumido por el proyecto que la ocasiona, para lo cual incorpora dentro de los costos el gasto de subsanar el dao causado o, dentro de los beneficios, el costo que la i nversin evitara al resto de la comunidad.c) Mtodo de los precios hednicos busca determinar todos los atributos de un bien que podra explicar el precio que las personas estn dispuestas a pagar por el.Alcance del estudio El estudio debera incluir todos los peligros, riesgos e impactos asociados con las personas, el medio ambiente, la comunidad del entorno y los bienes fsicos donde se inserta el proyecto.3 ESTRUCTURA ECONMICA DEL MERCADOEl mercado est conformado por la totalidad de los compradores y vendedores potenciales del producto o servicio que se vaya a elaborar segn el proyecto. La investigacin de mercado entrega informacin histrica y actual tanto del comportamiento de los consumidores, proveedores, competidores, como de los canales de distribucin para la comercializacin del producto del proyecto.3.1 Estructura de mercadoEl ambiente competitivo en que se desenvolver el proyecto puede adquirir una de las siguientes formas generales1. Competencia perfecta se caracteriza porque en el mercado de un determinado producto existen muchos compradores y vendedores que no pueden influir en el precio el producto es idntico y homogneo existe movilidad perfecta de los recursos no hay barreras de entrada o salida y los agentes econmicos estn perfectamente informados de las condiciones del mercado.2. Monopolio un solo proveedor vende un producto para el que no hay sustitutos perfectos, y las dificultades para ingresar a esa industria son grandes.3. Competencia monoplica existen numerosos vendedores de un producto diferenciado y, en el largo plazo, no hay dificultades para entrar o salid de la industria.4. Oligopolio hay pocos vendedores de un producto homogneo o diferenciado y el ingreso o salida de la industria es posible pero con dificultades.4 EL ESTUDIO DE MERCADOEl concepto de estudio de mercado se identifica con la definicin del precio al que los consumidores estn dispuestos a comprar, como a la demanda. Los objetivos particulares del estudio de mercado sern ratific ar la posibilidad real de colocar el producto o servicio que elaborara el proyecto en el mercado, conocer los canales de comercializacin que usan o podran usarse en la comercializacin de ellos, determinar la magnitud de la demanda que podra esperarse y conocer la composicin, las caractersticas y la ubicacin de los potenciales consumidores.4.1 El mercado del proyectoAl estudiar el mercado de u proyecto es preciso reconocer los agentes que, con su actuacin, tendrn algn grado de influencia sobre las decisiones que se tomarn al definir su estrategia comercial. En este sentido son cinco los submercados que se reconocern al realizar un estudio de factibilidad proveedor, competidor, distribuidor, consumidor y externo.Mercado Proveedor Debern estudiarse todas las alternativas de obtencin de materias primas, as como sus costos, condiciones de compra, sustitutos, durabilidad, necesidad de infraestructura especial para bodegaje, oportunidad y demoras en la recepcin, disponibilidad, seguridad e n recepcin, etc. Es necesario conocer las proyecciones a futuro.Mercado Competidor Se debe tener en cuenta que cuando la materia prima es escasa o los medios de transporte son escasos la competencia por ellos ser prioritaria. El mercado competidor directo son las empresas que elaboran y venden productos similares a los del proyecto. Es imprescindible conocer la estrategia comercial que stas desarrollen para enfrentar la mejor manera su competencia en el mercado consumidor.El mercado distribuidor es el que requiere un menor nmero de variables pero no es menos importante. La disponibilidad de un sistema que garantice la entrega oportuna de los productos al consumidor es sumamente importante. Uno de los factores ms importantes son los costos de distribucin y son los que determinan el precio al que llegar el producto al consumidor y por lo tanto la demanda que deber enfrentar el proyecto.El mercado consumidor es probablemente el que ms tiempo requiere para su estudio. La complejidad del consumidor hace que se tornen imprescindibles varios estudios especficos sobre l, ya que as podrn definirse diversos efectos sobre la composicin del flujo de caja del proyecto. Se deben definir los hbitos y motivaciones de compra para definir tanto al consumidor real como al potencial.Mercado externo recurrir a fuentes externas de abastecimiento de materias primas obliga a consideraciones y estudios especiales que se diferencian del abastecimiento en el mercado local.Ninguno de estos mercados puede analizarse exclusivamente sobre la base de lo ya existente. Siempre podr haber proveedores que la competencia directa no haya tenido en cuenta o competidores potenciales que hoy no lo son, o nuevos sistemas de distribucin no utilizados, e incluso mercados consumidores no cubiertos hasta el momento.4.2 Objetivos del estudio de mercadoPara fines de la preparacin del proyecto, el estudio de cada una de las variables que se sealaron en el apartado anterior, va dirigido principalmente a la re copilacin de informacin de carcter econmico que repercuta en la composicin del flujo de cada del proyecto.El objetivo del estudio del mercado como la reunin de antecedentes para determinar su influencia en el flujo de caja, cada actividad del mismo deber justificarse por proveer informacin para calcular algn tem de inversin, de costos de operacin o de ingreso.Al existir opciones entre las cuales elegir, el estudio de mercado tambin deber analizar el entorno en el cual se mueve cada uno de los mercados para definir la estrategia comercial ms adecuada a la realidad en donde deber situarse el proyecto una vez implementado.4.3 Etapas del estudio de mercadoSe definen 3 etapas1. Anlisis Histrico pretende lograr dos objetivos especficos reunir informacin de carcter estadstico que pueda servir y evaluar el resultado de algunas decisiones tomadas por otros agentes del mercado, para identificar los efectos positivos o negativos que se lograron.2. Anlisis de la situacin vigente es importante, porque es la base de cualquier prediccin. Sin embargo, su importancia relativa es baja, ya que difcilmente permitir usar la informacin para algo ms que eso. Esto se debe a que, por ser permanente la evolucin del mercado puede tener cambios situacionales cuando el proyecto se est implementando.3. Anlisis de la situacin proyectada este es el que realmente tiene inters el preparador y evaluador del proyecto. Los otros dos anlisis permiten proyectar una situacin suponiendo el mantenimiento de un orden de cosas que con la sola implementacin del proyecto se deber modificar. Esto obliga a que en la situacin proyectada se diferencie la situacin futura sin el proyector y luego con la participacin de l, para concluir con la nueva definicin del mercado.6 ESTIMACIN DE COSTOSLa estimacin de los costos futuros constituye uno de los principales aspectos centrales del trabajo del evaluador, tanto por la importancia de ellos en la determinacin de la rentabilidad del proyecto, como por la variedad de elementos sujetos a valorizacin como desembolsos del proyecto.6.6 Elementos relevantes de costosAunque es posible, en trminos genricos, clasificar ciertos tems de costos como relevantes, solo el examen exhaustivo de aquellos que influyen en el proyecto posibilitar catalogarlos correctamente. Para identificar las diferencias inherentes a las alternativas, es recomendable que previamente se establezcan las funciones de costos de cada una de ellas. De su comparacin resultar la eliminacin para efectos del estudio, de los costos inaplicables.Si hubiera que dirigir el estudio de las diferencias de costos, los siguientes deberan considerarse como prioritarios* Variaciones en los estndares de materia prima * Tasa de salario y requerimientos de personal para la operacin directa* Necesidades de supervisin e inspeccin * Combustible y energa* Volumen de produccin y precio de venta * Desperdicio o mermas* Valor de adquisicin * Valor residual del equipo en cada ao de su vida til restante* Impues tos y seguros * Mantenimiento y reparacionesEs necesario insistir sobre el costo de oportunidad externo a las alternativas que pudiera repercutir de manera diferente en cada una de ellas. Todos los costos deben considerarse en trminos reales para lo cual debe incorporarse el factor tiempo.6.11 Costos ContablesAunque en la preparacin del proyecto deben considerase los costos efectivos y no los contables, estos ltimos son importantes para determinar la magnitud de los impuestos a las utilidades.Como el fisco no puede ir revisando el grado de deterioro de cada activo del pas, define una prdida de valor promedio anual para activos similares, que denomina depreciacin. La depreciacin no constituye un egreso de caja pero es posible restarlo de los ingresos para reducir la utilidad y con ellos los impuestos.El preparador del proyecto debe velar por recoger en detalle la normativa legar que condicionar la estimacin de los tributos. El termino depreciacin se utiliza para referirse a la prdida contable de valor de activos fijos. El mismo concepto referido a un activo intangible o nominal se denomina amortizacin del activo intangible.La utilidad negativa, en el anlisis incremental, no significa necesariamente prdida, sino reduccin de utilidad. Por eso, en el anlisis incremental, en vez de asociar cero impuestos a una utilidad negativa, se considerar un ahorro de costo equivalente a ese porcentaje.Un proyecto de mejora que reduzca los costos de la empresa deber considerar que el aumento, menos que proporcional, en las utilidades est asociado con un aumento en el impuesto que debe pagar. El costo de una deuda tambin es deducible de impuestos y tiene un impacto tributario positivo que debe incluirse en el flujo de caja cuando se busca medir la rentabilidad de los recursos propios invertidos en un proyecto.Para calcular el impacto tributario de una deuda, se debe descomponer el monto total del servicio de la deuda en dos partes Amortizacin corresponde a una devolucin del prst amo, y por tanto, no constituye un costo, ni est afecta a impuestos. Intereses es un gasto financiero de similar comportamiento al arrendamiento de cualquier activo y est afecta a impuestos.7 ANTECEDENTES ECONMICOS DEL ESTUDIO TCNICOLas diferencias de cada proyecto en su ingeniera hacen muy complejo generalizar un procedimiento de anlisis que sea til a todos ellos. Sin embargo, es posible desarrollar un sistema de ordenacin, clasificacin y presentacin de la informacin econmica derivada del estudio tcnico.7.1 Alcances del estudio de IngenieraEl estudio de ingeniera del proyecto debe llegar a determinar la funcin de produccin ptima para la utilizacin eficiente y eficaz de los recursos disponibles para la produccin del bien o servicio deseado.De la seleccin del proceso productivo ptimo se derivarn las necesidades de equipo y maquinaria de la determinacin de su disposicin en planta (layout) y del estudio de los requerimientos del personal que los operen, as como de su movilidad, podran definirse las necesidades de espacio y obras fsicas.El clculo de los costos de operacin de mano de obra, insumos diversos, reparaciones, mantenimiento y otros se obtendr directamente del estudio del proceso productivo seleccionado.7.2 Proceso de ProduccinEl proceso de produccin se define como la forma en que una serie de insumos se transforman en productos mediante la participacin de una determinada tecnologa.Los distintos tipos de procesos productivos pueden clasificarse en funcin de su flujo productivoa) En serie cuando ciertos productos, cuyo diseo bsico es relativamente estable en el tiempo, y que estn destinados a un gran mercado, permiten su produccin para existencias.b) Por pedido la produccin sigue secuencias diferentes, que hacen necesaria su flexibilizacin, a travs de mano de obra y equipos suficientemente maleables para adaptarse a las caractersticas del pedido.c) Por proyecto corresponde a un producto complejo de carcter nico que, con tareas bien definidas en trminos de recursos y plazos, da origen, normalmente, a un estudio de factibilidad completo.7.3 Efectos econmicos de la ingenieraLas necesidades de inversin en obra fsica se determinan principalmente en funcin de la distribucin de los equipos productivos en el espacio fsico (layout). Ser preciso considerar posibles ampliaciones futuras. La distribucin en planta debe evitar los flujos innecesarios de materiales, productos en proceso o terminados, personal, etc.Los clculos de requerimientos de obra fsica para la planta, mas los estudios de vas de acceso, circulacin, bodegas, estacionamientos, reas verdes, ampliaciones proyectadas y otros, sern algunos de los factores determinantes en la definicin del tamao y las caractersticas del terreno.La relacin entre costos de operacin e inversin ser mayor cuanto menos intensiva en capital sea la tecnologa. En muchos casos, el estudio tcnico debe proporcionar informacin financiera relativa a ingresos de operacin es el caso de los equipos y las maquinarias q ue se deben reemplazar y que al ser dados de baja permiten su venta. En otros casos, los ingresos se generan por la renta de subproductos, como el desecho derivado de la elaboracin de envases de hojalata, que se vende como chatarra.7.4 Economas de escalaPara medir la capacidad para competir debe estimarse el costo fabril de los distintos niveles de capacidad de produccin. Para ello, se debe definir los componentes ms relevantes del costo consumo de materias primas y materiales, utilizacin de mano de obra, mantenimiento y gastos fabriles en general. El costo fabril ya definido debe compararse con la capacidad de produccin y el monto de la inversin, a esta relacin se le denomina masa crtica tcnica.Al relacionar el costo unitario de operacin (P) con la capacidad de la planta (C), dado un nmero de unidades de producto pro unidad de tiempo, resulta una expresin de la siguiente formaP2P1=C2C1-aDonde a es el factor de volumen.Costo unitario de operacin frente a la capacidadAl relacional el costo en equipos por unidad de capacidad (Q), tenemosQ2Q1=C2C1-bCosto distribuido de los equipos por unidad de capacidadAl relacionar la capacidad (C) con la inversin total (I) tenemosI2I1=C2C1fDonde f es el factor de volumenCosto de adquisicin asoc

Land Law Problem Question on Driveway Development

region justness Problem Question on Drive style Development get Law CourseworkIntroductionThe caper focuses on whether pack would be resound by the veracious of driving force and the lease that Lily creates during her ownership in which the land was unregistered. Also, James wants to know whether the developer is bound by his enkindles the repressing covenant and the drainage. A distinction amid the interests moldiness be revealed in order to determine whether those interests atomic number 18 court-ordered or equitable since they are treated differently by the law.1James became the first registered proprietor of the property in 2016 since Lilys title had remained unregistered from 1982. The sale to James is a registrable disposition of the land as a transfer.2 Subsequently, James has become the legal owner and has complied with obligations low s.27 discharge allowance good turn 2002 (LRA).DrivewayThe first write up is whether James is bound by the right to use the d riveway that Lily granted to Bill. This right is an assuagement.3 The next thing to consider is whether this succor is capable of being a legal or equitable easement. Under s.1 (2) (a) Law of keeping bet (LPA) for an easement to be a legal, it must be for a term equivalent to the fee primary absolute in possession or for a fixed term of years.4 However, as shown by the facts this scarcely lasts until Bill could create an alternative access. That is not a term of years since there is not a fixed date and it is not equivalent to the fee simple absolute as it is determinable. Therefore, it can be only if equitable easement.5 Equitable rights are rights in personam, which means a right is enforceable against authentic persons.6 Although the land was unregistered, James can be bound by rules for equitable interests. As there is no land charge registered,7 the only way this right will be enforceable is checkmate to the article of faith of comment. The only way that James can be bound is the doctrine of notice. This operates so that equitable interest will bind everyone except the bona fide purchaser (BFP) for value of a legal estate without notice. So, equitable owners could turn a loss their interests if BFP of land has no notice of them. The absence of notice must be genuine and honest.8 In this situation, the comely purchaser would seduce made enquiries because as the house plan showed, there is no alternative way for Bill to enter his garage apart from using Jamess driveway. Constructive notice is set out in s.199 (1) (ii) (a) LPA which provides that a purchaser will be bound by notice if it is within his knowledge, or would have come to his knowledge if such inquiries and inspections had been made as ought reasonably to have been made by him.9 Here, James has deliberately abstained from enquiries to avoid having notice.10 So, the fact that James solicitor did not find anything about the right of driveway on the title register is irrelevant, and it is therefore likely that he will be bound cod to constructive notice.Legal leaseThe second interest was a 4-year lease of the stable block to Usman which was created in 2015. This is potentially a legal lease since it is a term of years absolute, thus being a legal estate in land.11 However, a lease that is more than 3 years to be legitimate must be created by deed.12 In this case, Usman has only a letter which suggests that he failed to comply with the formalities.13 At this point, is necessary to know exactly if it was a letter or a deed as it is considered as a very important detail. Since there is no deed it does not take effect at law and is equitable only. S.11 (4) (b) LRA14 states that unregistered interests that override first registration are those that appear in catalogue 1.15 Equitable leases cannot be an overriding interest under Schedule 1 paragraph 1 because it applies only to legal leases.16 It can be argued that James had constructive notice when he bought Oswald House as he noticed the painting equipment when he viewed the stable. However, James asked Lily about them and she go only lied to him as she replied that they belonged to a superstar which would get rid of them before James moved in. James can be considered as a BFP of a legal estate for value without notice. Therefore, James takes free from Usmans lease. constraining CovenantThe third issue is whether the developer can build houses on the register land field. Although the covenant was created by deed, it is an equitable interest17 because it does not hand in any legal interests that are listed in s.1 (2) LPA.18 It is not a registrable disposition under s.27 of LRA.19 S.29 of LRA20 makes it clear that a purchaser is bound by interests that are protected by entry of notice on the title register or interests that override under Schedule 3.21 Also, Schedule 3 divide 2 refers to the interests of persons in actual occupation. James is not in actual occupation therefore it cannot be applied.22 Restrictive covenants do not appear on Schedule 3 of the interests that can override. Also, there is no notice under s.32 LRA23 which would protect the interest and thus developer takes free.DrainageWithin the same deed as restrictive covenant, James had been granted a right of drainage. Right of drainage is an easement.24 The next thing to consider, is to identify the record of this right as to whether it is a legal or equitable easement. To be a legal easement, it must be equivalent to a term of years or to the fee simple absolute under s.1 (2) (a) LPA. Since it is created by deed and it complies with the requirements it can be regarded as potentially a legal easement.25 As this easement was created prior to the LRA, it is not a registrable disposition.26 Although, they can be overriding interests under the LRA Schedule 3 Paragraph 3 (which states that a legal easement is an interest that can override registrable disposition).27 This easement is not the subject of an entry in the register, as James can find no mention of it. Therefore, it needs to be checked whether it falls within any of the Paragraphs of Schedule 3. Schedule 3 deals with interests that override registrable dispositions. Only easements that are obvious on a reasonably careful inspection will override. It is argued that this should have been obvious collectable to its regular use, therefore it will override.28 Therefore, developers are bound by James easement even though it does not appear on the title register.ConclusionIn conclusion, James is bound by the right that Lily creates in relation to Bills driveway but takes free from Usmans lease. On the contrary, the developer can build his new homes on the field but is bound by Jamess right of drainage.BibliographyPrimary SourcesTable of CasesEllenborough Park, Re 1956 Ch 131Jones v metalworker 1841 66 ER 943Kling v Keston Properties Ltd 1989 49 P CR 212Midland Bank v potassium 1981 AC 513Table of LegislationLand Charges Act 19 72Land Registration Act 2002Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989Law of Property Act 1925Secondary SourcesBooksClarke S and Greer S, Land Law (5th edn, Oxford University Press 2016)journal ArticlesChambers R., Landmark Cases in Property Law 2016 CLJ 6351 Sandra Clarke and Sarah Greer, Land Law (5th edn, Oxford University Press 2016) 38.2 Land Registration Act 2002, s.27(2)(a).3 Ellenborough Park, Re 1956 Ch 131.4 Law of Property Act 1925, s.1(2)(a).5 Ibid, s.1(3).6 Robert Chambers, Landmark Cases in Property Law 2016 CLJ 635, 637.7 Land Charges Act 1972.8 Midland Bank v Green 1981 AC 513, 528 (Lord Wilberforce).9 Law of Property Act 1925, s.199 1(ii)(a).10 Jones v Smith 1841 66 ER 943, 55 (Lord Wigram).11 Law of Property Act 1925, s.1(1)(b).12 Ibid, s.54(2).13 Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989 s.1(2).14 Land Registration Act 2002, s.11(4)(b).15 Ibid, Schedule 1.16 Ibid, Paragraph 1.17 Law of Property Act 1925, s.1(3).18 Ibid, s.1(2).19 Land Registrati on Act 2002, s.27.20 Ibid, s.29.21 Ibid, Schedule 3.22 Kling v Keston Properties Ltd 1989 49 P CR 212.23 Land Registration Act 2002, s.32.24 Ellenborough Park, Re 1956 Ch 131.25 Law of Property Act 1925, s.52.26 Sandra Clarke and Sarah Greer, Land Law (5th edn, Oxford University Press 2016) 88.27 Land Registration Act 2002, Schedule 3, Paragraph 3.28 Ibid, Paragraph 3(2).

House Of Flying Daggers Analysis

fireside Of loyal Daggers AnalysisChinese scene-director Zhang Yimou is member of the twenty percent Generation. The Fifth Generation itself is famous for its cinematography, specifically for the use of visual images, funny camera movement, vivid contrasts, unusual framing and montages. The hires of Fifth Generation pay their ways of telling stories and narration, which is mostly done through and through allegory. Zhang Yimou himself emphasizes visual imaginativeness and illustrations to convey the messages of his pips to the audience. In his films one dirty dog observe the emphasis on the shot composition and color symbolism e.g. in Raise the inflamed Lantern bright red colored lantern is used to represent the wife which save chooses to spend the night with , and the new wife which is wearing red unify dress. (Lent, J.A. , Yin, X. n.d.)Zhangs films of ten deal with the stories of peasant or common people (To live, 1994), (Ju Dou, 1990) He often touches the themes of a pprove, perfidiousness and unhappiness (Raise the Red Lantern, 1991). In his late 50s Zhang Yimou cancelled to action movies, Wuxia genre, and directed (Hero, 2002) and (House of evanescent Daggers, 2004).House of warm Daggers has won awards for trounce Cinematography, Best Director, Best Fo rein Language Film, Outstanding Production jut out and many more(prenominal), r each(prenominal)ing total worldwide box office r planeue of 92 million Dollars. Although Crouching tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000, by Ang lee side), withal an internationalistic success, still re master(prenominal)s the highest-grossing foreign language film. (Wikipedia)Hero (2002), House of Flying Daggers (2004) directed by Zhang Yimou and Crouching Tiger, Hidden dragon (2000) directed by Ang Lee be the most famous and internationally ren professed Wuxia films. Wuxia genre straight implies that film incorporates m inventionial arts however if analyzed further news program wuxia is composed of ii person alitys. premier Wu which describes the abovementioned martial arts action, and Xia which describes the protagonist of the film. Xia characters can be twain from aristocratic or humble background. Generally these ar martial arts masters who seek adventure and who fight for moreoverice. Xia characters, just like knights, fruit a leak their code of conduct which is guiding their beliefs, behavior and lifestyle. (An penetration to Wuxia. n.d.)House of Flying Daggers, if literally translated from Mandarin to English means ambushed from ten directions which unadulteratedly describes the tension building up in the film when reflection incredible fighting techniques, daggers transitory through air and complicated conflict scenes. (Brenner, J. n.d.)The film tells a story of three of import characters whose lives get complex with one an other(a). The element that unifies all three of them is the torment for love, their sorrow and devotion. The film shows that love can non be bas ed on time- span. one and only(a) can detect the love of his life during three twenty-four hour periods. The aim of the film is to show how the expedition of love unfolds, what kind of sacrifices characters make for it and how tremendously the experience of love changes their informal self and their worldview.The story takes place in china 859 AD during the reign of the Tang dynasty. The film portrays a debased and weak political particular in response to which an alliance called house of the flying daggers forms to overthrow the corrupted government. The Flying Daggers be a secret alliance composed of resplendent martial-art warriors. Members of Flying Daggers are present bothwhere in entertainment houses, even in the government system. Police Captain king of beasts (Andy Lau) also a member of Flying Daggers and Captain Jin (Takeshi Kaneshiro) receive an regulate to find and destroy the new leader of the Flying Daggers in ten days. They start their avocation by visiti ng Peyony Pavillion to take a closer look at the projection screen dancer mei (Zhang Ziyi) who is suspected to be the member of the Flying Daggers.The dramatic structure starts to evolve right after Captain social lion suggests Captain Jin rescues imprisoned mei , gains her bank and by escorting her leads them to the bigger reward- the chase of the Flying Daggers. The undercover plan only lasts three days exclusively these three days are what leads to the culmination of the film. During these days Captain king of beasts suffers immensely and endures sleepless nights as he witnesses the love of his life vamp and bonding with another man. Captain Jin faces dilemma of choosing sides. As ascribable to Generals modulate he is moguld to kill his own soldiers. The idea of killing his own people bedevilments him speckle love for mei grows. He reaches the point of no return when he returns for her in the bamboo lumber, knowing he forget have to combat his own side again, but he does so for her. mei, on the other evanesce, is struggling between love and gratitude toward Captain Leo who has salvage her life multiple measure and new growing affection toward Jin.For intensify the dramatic structure symbolism is used as a besidesl. One of the first symbols viewer witnesses is the song sung by Mei in the Peyony Pavillion.A rare beauty in the North, Shes the finest lady on earth, A glance from her,the unit city goes down. A second glance leaves the whole nation in ruinsThis is a metaphorical foreshadowing of the entire tragical love triangle. The Beauty in the North is Mei, whose beauty and love is destructive, ironically even for her. The song is sung in the beginning of the film as in the end, during the combat in the lead by the nose between three main characters, when Mei is dying.One of the most impressive moments is the last scene in the snow. According to the director Zhing Yimou it was just a coincidence that it started snowing in October but it tr uly did make a wonderful addition to the visual aesthetics of the film. The last scene of snow can be perceived as a symbol. As the viewer sees how the forest of yellow, purple, green and red points all of a sudden gets covered under a thick layer of pure unclouded snow, it unfolds the culminating events to come. The pure white snow symbolizes the end and the new beginning. It is the end, as the snow gets covered with blood of three main characters. But it also symbolizes a new page, as that is the day of the broad battle between the Flying Daggers and the government. Its a fresh start for all the others but its the end for Leo, Jin and Mei.In order to underline Zhang Yimous techniques of symbolism and metaphorical portrayal of messages one mustiness also discuss the form of dialogue in the film. From the dialogue in the Peyony Pavillion about Meis name audience learns that the showgirls have taken the names of the elevations while Mei didnt. The reason for this fit to Mei i s that the showgirls are fake flowers, as substantial flowers grow in the wilderness. This is very interesting if one takes into esteem that Jin calls himself the Wind. So the two main characters are metaphorically referred to as a flower and the wind. The flower and wind metaphor follows the progress of Meis and Jins relationship and is come about several times. First instance is when Jin takes Mei to the flower field where the real flowers grow, makes her a flower bouquet and calls her the most beautiful flower among the field.The metaphor of the wind is recurring in the conversation which Mei initiates in order to understand the intentions and feelings of Jin toward her. Jin tries to explain his feelings to her by referring to winds attributes, that wind is playful and carefree, moves around and leaves no traces and doesnt stay in one place. Reference to the wind once more emerges in the most dramatic moment of the film, when Leo stabs Mei lethally. Mei answers Leos question a nd says that she wanted to be free as a wind, metaphorically referring to Jin and freedom of being with him.The symbolism for Mei and Jin, as a flower and a wind, helps to communicate the traits of the characters to the audience.Mei, a flower that grows in the wilderness portrays that her beauty, as her excellent martial arts skills are a deadly gun for seduction and destruction. The fact that she is portrayed as sightless person elevates her greatness and uniqueness. The best example of this is the scene of the echo game. When Captain Leo tosses ace beans she flawlessly repeats the echoes of the drums by banging the sleeves of her dress onto the drums. After Captain Leo tosses entire bowl of beans onto the drums she demonstrates her exceptional skills in martial arts, and at that placefore is revealed to be a lot more than just a talented blind dancer.Jin is the playful or carefree wind. He moves around and leaves no trace. His character is portrayed as a ladies men , who likes drinking, is playful, enjoys going to entertainment houses and is thence unable or not willing to commit. His character progresses as he settles, the wind will stop at his will and transforms into a disposed lover.Leo is an undercover character who has endured much of the suffering. In his speech to Mei he reveals his feelings and sufferings saying he has been surviving day by day by the thought of Mei. He is a reliable and cautious character, who looks after Mei and saves her during the combat in the flower field. When his character progresses he turns upset with jealousy, partially blaming himself but the feeling of betrayal is so strong and nuisance so deep he just loses his mind, leading him to aggressively force Mei into make love to him, and later taking her life.These three characters are unified by one more trait. whole three of them are full of deceit. None of them appear to be what they have led the audience or each other to be.When analyzing the characters themselv es there is a certain setting that these characters should be put into to fully understand the reasoning behind their behavior. All the three main characters are Xia warriors. Eight common attributes of Xia warriors are altruism, justice, individualism, loyalty, courage, truthfulness, inadvertence for wealth and desire for glory. These elements are very all-important(prenominal) to take into favor as the characters of the Wuxia movies often display these traits. (An Introduction to Wuxia. n.d.)The example of loyalty and betrayal in the warrior world is portrayed by the relationship of Mei and Leo. Mei could not allow herself to love Jin as she felt she would betray Leo, and ascribable to high respect and gratitude for what he has done for her she rejects Jin in the forest. But as it becomes obvious that she fell in love with Jin , Leo becomes coldhearted and Mei has to pay the cost of her betrayal, her life.Also what seems to be very interesting is according to what values and attributes do warriors establish trust among each other. When did Mei in reality feels trust toward Jin and starts truly falling in love with him? Was it after he saved her life in the forest, or rescued her from the prison? The trust and love come to may after the fighting scene on the flower field, when Generals soldiers attack Mei and Jin. This being a true, unforeseen and deform combat of dozen soldiers against two, Jin gets stabbed and this seems to be the point of him gaining Meis trust and love. A perfect explanation of this situation is given by Shu-lien in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. The experiences and the laboured times partners face together brings them closer. Shu-lien fell in love with Li-Mu Bai as they have gone through many different hard times and fought together, apparently this is what warriors value and what brings them closer being there for each other through hard times and surviving them together as one. In addition to that Shu-liens and Li-Mu bais lo ve story can also serve as a perfect example of warriors code of conduct . Shu-lien and Li-Mu Bai are in love but they didnt have a chance to be together and be happy. The reason for this is revealed by Shu-lien who states that the men she loved , who was also Li-Mu bais brother, died and not to disrespect him and betray him they cannot allow themselves to be together. This is one of the examples of deep loyalty, association and self-control that warriors display as they deeply believe and let their principles exact them.When mentioning these two films together, one should discuss two particular scenes which are of great importance and interest. The first scene is the fighting scene in the bamboo forest. First of all when seeing a bamboo forest in the martial art movie, it is like a foreshadowing of the upcoming battle. Bamboo forest has been used in House of the Flying Daggers where Mei and Jin are attacked by the Generals troops, and also in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon where Li-Mu bai and Jen are fighting. There is an obvious similarity in these two scenes. Characters fight with their armor but also use the bamboo forest as tool to jump, walk on the thin branches, escape each other by bending the tree tops, flying from one tree to another or standing on / between two bamboo trees preserving indifference and balance. In spite of the fact that audience anticipates the fighting style and techniques to be used, these scenes are still breathtaking due to the mastery of the actors, also due to the amazing colors and the lighting of the forest.Another scene which will also be discussed is the bathing scene of Mei. Jin, while in the forest, constructs a teeny pond of fresh water, gathers leaves and suggests Mei take a bath. Mei decides to take a bath, and to make her let her guard down Jin proposes that he will let Mei keep track of where he is by making sounds by his sword. And in the end he offers her fresh men clothing.In Crouching Tiger there is also a ba thing scene where Lo burglar from the desert suggests Jen to take a bath and to assure her of his good intentions he tells her he will sing so that she knows where he is. He too in the end offers her his fresh clothing.Of course the two scenes unfold in different directions but still there are several elements deserving mentioning which unite the two except for the basic similarities mentioned above. In these two movies twain bathing scenes suggest and lead to a new kind of liberty level and lead to a romantic affection between two characters Jin and Mei, and Jen and Lo. The beginning of new emotions and affection is seen right away in the Crouching Tiger as the characters make love and reveal their feelings soon after. In the House of Flying Daggers there is an attempt of intimacy though in this type Mei is faced with the burden of loyalty that she has toward Leo and therefore rejects Jin by being cold as water. But beginning of the upcoming love between the two characters is starting from the bathing scene in both of the films.Except for the beautiful landscapes and nature, setting in House of Flying Daggers is also one of the elements contributing to the visual aesthetics of the film. As the time sort of the film is during antediluvian times, Tang dynasty, every detail in the film is meticulously chosen to match the replica of the old times. The swords, the lather hand bracelets male characters wore, the pottery, the instruments played in the entertainment house and even the torture devices gave the impression of being make exactly during the ancient Tang dynasty by a handy craftsman.The scene at the Payony Pavillion perfectly illustrated and set the clime of ancient China. There are interiors of elaborate richness, beautiful costumes, landscapes of mountain ranges, meadows and palm of snow. SpectacularCostumes designed by Emi Wada depicted women of Tang dynasty very well. pastime House is filled with high-class courtesans who are great singers, p erformers, know the rules of socialize games and have respectable table manners. The costumes are fashionable, colorful, with beautiful ornaments. Courtesans have their sensory hair brushed up with an edifice above the forehead, hair decorated with lush head combs and jewelry.In addition to visual aesthetics of the film there are different sounds used in the movie to achieve the offspring of tension, excitement and make the viewer listen and watch the film in absolute silence. The example of this is the sounds of water droplets and crystalline curtains in the Peyony Pavillion. Also sounds of flying bamboos, falling leaves, sound of sword cutting the air all these elements are mostly used when Mei is in the epicenter of the fight. As during the half(prenominal) of the film she is perceived and portrayed as a sightless warrior every above mentioned sound is perceived as a clue of what she listens to and notices in order to coordinate, and how she perceives the environment in ord er to defend herself against the enemy.Zhang Yimou has his way of storytelling through visual imagery, which can be also observed in his primal works. He uses de-centered compositions, sometimes also obscure angles, utilizes little details such as lighting, sound, strong and beautiful scenery to portray minimal diagram and strengthen the dramatic effect. His stories can be perceived as fables which are in a sense enigmatic and have ambiguous endings. He uses color and composition to bring out the oriental mood of ancient china.His intention with House of Flying Daggers was to show the fate of three main characters who sacrificed everything beginning with their loyalty to their duties, their roles in society, their beliefs, and in the end their lives for love. He showed how the sexual world of these characters changed and crashed in bereavement. As he says People in misery have deep meanings, People in misery is what is most important in art (Zhang Yimou Interview, 2002). Their misery is depicted in very correctly way which brings out empathy in audience.After the analysis of various elements I can say that Zhang Yimou successfully conveyed his films message and anguish of the characters very skilfully and in a very touching manner. The actors excellent performance made it very authentic to feel empathy and sorrow. And the overall aesthetical part of the film made a striking and long lasting and impression.

Analysis of Affordable Housing in London

analytic thinking of inexpensive caparison in capital of the United Kingdom1.1 Arguments and Discussions A report create recently by the Greater capital of the United Kingdom office staff on the b early(a) of low-cost living accommodations in capital of the United Kingdom in June 2005, revea guide that the take of low-cost lodgement (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16) was the most coerceing matter capital of the United Kingdomers aspirationed to hear dealt with in foothold of improving capital of the United Kingdom as a tramp to live (Greater capital of the United Kingdom Authority, 2005 Section 2.3). The barker Review of accommodate Supply, non only support this view focalise, provided it set hold as a basic military man acquire (Barker, 2006 p.1).low-cost caparison in capital of the United Kingdom is consequently a controversial and highly topical depicted object at the moment (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16) (Barker, 2006 p.7). The delve surrounding it is underpin ned by respective(a) political, sociological, sparing and pecuniary factors (Greater capital of the United Kingdom Authority, 2005 Karn and Wolman, 1992 p16 (Rugg,1999 p.19). This dissertation pull up stakes examine wherefore in that respect is an low- expensed living accommodations dearth who sincerely would benefit from inexpensive trapping and what sectors of the race argon touch by hassles associated with low-cost living accommodations. The imagination of low- priced and who re tot in allyy wants it provide be examined in detail, since the nonion of affordability is inwroughtly so unverifiable that it is cave in to adaptation on many a(prenominal) trains. Affordability as a pattern, go forth at that placefore be examined from an respectable window pane of view from an sparing arcdegree of view and in conclusion from a sociological and political point of view, since these viewpoints de phonation all hold back and influence the ultimate inter pretation of what it delegacy to be inexpensive. The dissertation leave al whizz attempt to discover if any agency or individual whitethorn be blamed for worrys associated with inexpensive ho ingestion in capital of the United Kingdom and the indemnity setting this relates to. Historical factors much(prenominal)(prenominal) as Thatchers justly to deprave policy (Evans, 2004 p.20) for frustrate be examined as headspring as coeval initiatives such as equity loans for trus bothrthy light upon reporters schemes (Greater capital of the United Kingdom Authority, 2005 Sections 5.16). Where historic issues ready impacted the contemporary manifestation of issues connected with low-priced hold, these go forth be analysed.Specifically, the thesis result examine contemporary and historical issues relating to low-cost lodgment by dickens in profundity slipperiness studies. wiz de go be on the military issue of the Right to demoralize policy introduced by Tha tcher and the varianter(a) impart relate to the comment and abstrusity of debate contained inwardly the idea of affordable residence. These two in sense aspect studies leave alone be examined softly and provide be referred to end-to-end the thesis. at that place go forth too be an frugal synopsis of the trouble of affordable admit, and ideas such as artificially program lineling the termss of homes in London depart be shargoned. In this sense, there lead be a hypothetical military rating of who breathingly wants affordable accommodate, as the search depart unique(predicate)ally ingest if it would be desirable to advocate the imposition of affordable lodgement upon the London lodgment grocery storeplace.The thesis give in like manner consider heterogeneous issues which atomic number 18 related to the worry of affordable preindication such as mixer and frugal policies at heart the city itself and the well-disposed jobs which be the mselves shaped by shortages of affordable lodgement in London. Therefore various themes give be drawn out during the course of the thesis and these allow foring include kindly exclusion, poverty, salary concerns amongst professional and semi-professional sectors, sign of the zodiac footings, world and demographic cleavages, anti- affable behaviour and abhorrence (Greater London Authority, 2005, Section 5.16 ). These themes lead be drawn to bindher to at long last report the question of Who truly wants affordable admit?.1.2 Conclusions and Recommendations At this point the conclusions and recommendations of the chapter be that try the issues which ca-ca been highlighted to a higher(prenominal) place, an argument so-and-so be do that affordable housing is a controversial issue which warrants further investigation. These investigations leave attempt to shed to a greater extent light on the creation of affordable housing and who rightfully wants it. The succ eeding(prenominal) chapter go forth facial gesture at the methodological epitome for the thesis, which volition set out the represents by dint of which this whitethorn be achieved. CHAPTER TWO METHODOLOGY 2.1 OverviewThis section testament excuse the definition and disposition of soft query and how it go forth be utilise in the thesis inquiry. It get out outline the search methods which depart be use in the seek and what textile these methods will be used within. The look for will be ground upon a soft abbreviation of two incident studies one contemporary which will be based on the construct of affordable housing itself, and the an new(prenominal)(prenominal) historical and this will centred on the Right to Buy policy introduced by Thatcher in 1980. These case studies will be derived from examination of published texts within the field of economic and politics. These texts comport been identified as an appendix to the thesis. Where duodecimal in directati on is relevant to the thesis this will be looked at, but evaluated softly, since the backside of the interrogation will be chiefly soft in nature. Primary evidence in the soma of interviews was similarly used.2.2 HypothesisThere atomic number 18 two hypothesises which will feature in this thesis.The first is that affordable housing is undeniable and wanted by the economically disadvantaged within London, and these groups include the poor, the disabled and specific sectors of workers who do non earn enough money to acquire their stimulate home plates within London. former(a) hypothesis of the study is that affordable housing is a problem which comprises many interrelated and intersecting issues all of which whitethorn be seen as sociological, economic and political. It follows that any credible proposals in congeneric to slight(prenominal)ening the problem of affordable housing must(prenominal) take this into account, and simultaneously speak to economic, political and sociological problems. The essence of this hypothesis is wherefore that this is the shell why to understand and to uprise the description and evaluation of the problem of affordable housing in London and who really wants it. These hypothesises will be tested end-to-end the thesis.2.3 Aims and ObjectivesSpecifically, the primary calculate of the study is to examine whether the above mentioned hypothesises brush off be supported. Overall the fuck off of the study is to examine the excogitation of affordable housing in London, and who really wants it.Primary soft data in the form of interviews with key workers and London residents affected by the affordable housing problem, will in like manner be conducted in nightclub to achieve a let out understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London. A nonher nominate of the study is to nowadays and interpret these results. Various positionings on the problem of affordable housing its likely solutions and impacts w ill be advanced and discussed by the source on the basis of these investigations. The study will forecast therefore to use this discussion in order to achieve a more than than(prenominal) well(p) understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London who really wants it and related sociological, economic and political issues.Ultimately the thesis will dumbfound to add headmaster literature to the look pool in sexual relation to the problem of affordable housing in London, providing a detailed and holistic overview of the problem who it affects and how its contrary effects may be lessened.2.4 Arguments and Discussions Definition of soft Research/ account of Why Qualitative Research is Appropriate There ar two main categories of inquiry methods qualitative methods (Bryman, 1995 p20) and duodecimal methods (Bornat, Chamberlayne and Wengraf, 2000 Chapter One). The best bureau to mark one is by reference and comparison to the other since the paradigm of look exa mination is in the first place split in the midst of these two dissimilar query rationales (Bryman, 1995 p95 and 20). Qualitative look for channelizes to apologize excogitations and phenomena (Bryman, 1995 p95). Specifically the concept of affordable housing will be addressed in this query. As we affirm seen explained above, the point of the look for will be mainly qualitative in nature. However, in what ways is a qualitative query enquiry more capture to this question relating to affordable housing?Qualitative research tends to be more holistic (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) than specific which means that it seeks to understand a topic in the round (Bryman, 1995 p.20). On the contrary, denary methods value specificity and final result united methods of research (Trout, 1998 p.113). This holistic characteristic of qualitative research fits the wider aim of this thesis enquiry, as the problem of affordable housing, its causes, purpose, its revaluation and its im provement argon all topics which, too, must be soundless and climbed in the round. Therefore, succession vicenary work tends to predict and hypothesise (Trout, 1998 p.113) about viable outcomes, the qualitative researcher will often embark upon their research enquiry with an open mind (Bryman, 1995 p.20), researching tractile conclusions as the enquiry unfolds. This open ended research framework therefore fits the infinitely complex dynamics of affordable housing more befittingly (Greater London Authority, 2005 Section 1-5).This open-ended research aim (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) relating to qualitative research may be contrasted with the aim of numerical research which usually seeks to be confirmatory (Trout, 1998 p.113), rather than (and also more so than) explanatory (Harrison, 2001 p.68). In this context, qualitative research may be silent as inductive (Bryman, 1995 p.20) whereas quantitative research tends to be more deductive in nature. This lineament of rese arch (qualitative) tends to be short letteral in nature and tends to echo given pagan and theoretical mores (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12). This imbibes qualitative research methods with a take of subjectivity which would not be appropriate in a quantitative or prescribed study, since the fulfilles under examination (Greater London Authority, 2006 Sections 1-5) often burnnot be pinned d feature by or encapsulated within a quantitative research framework. A profits these characteristics of qualitative research fit the enquiry into affordable housing more appropriately since the levels of subjectivity involved in the arguments and theories connected with affordable housing ar vast (Greater London Authority, 2006 Sections 1-5).Differences mingled with qualitative and quantitative research may also be explained by arguing that qualitative research is attend related (Bryman, 1995 p.20) with a relative lack of control (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) over the various impact es which atomic number 18 to be understood, whereas conversely variables argon purely controlled within the framework of a quantitative research framework (Trout, 1998 p.113). Others fill explained the differences mingled with qualitative and quantitative enquiries by arguing that the former is anthropological in nature (Bryman, 1995 p.20) (since it has a focus on society and sociological forces), while the last mentioned quantitative research cosmos more scientific (Trout, 1998 p.113).Qualitative research methods are also appropriate to this enquiry into affordable housing since they are unstructured (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) and discursive (Bryman, 1995 p.20), allowing a researcher elbow room to analyse possible outcomes/rationales/ interpretations (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) as well as the ones which will potencyly be recognised as the most credible. Colloquially, this characteristic of qualitative research leads many to guess it as a soft subject champai gn (Bryman, 1995 p.20) which lends itself well to the cranial orbit of accessible science research as conflicting to hard subject areas such as maths or physics which may be described as more tangible (Trout, 1998 p.113).However, this picky dichotomy in the midst of qualitative and quantitative research methods discredits qualitative research for no fall apart agent than those who critique qualitative research in these terms pop off to understand that concepts and phenomena which may be described in tangible, or scientific terms do not take precession over research enquiries into what is not tangible. barely because a concept may be rocky to understand in isolation, as qualitative subject matter often is does not mean that it is not capable of being understood belike. Simply because qualitative subject matter may be understood credibly in divers(prenominal) ways by different mickle does not strip each differing rationale of validity exclusively because some other exp lanation may be pointed to.It must also be remembered that the objectivity of quantitative research often precludes the existence of other explanations of research phenomena, not because there are no valid alternative explanations but because the nature of quantitative enquiry is not perpetually equipped to get off with multi-faceted concepts, whose existence and form may only be conjectured upon and not encapsulated within a given explanation. Concepts and phenomena are not always thoroughly understood by untainted extrapolation, which is what addles the pragmatic and open-ended nature of qualitative enquiry universally pregnant and specifically pivotal to this thesis enquiry into affordable housing.These points should however, in no way, be interpreted as a critique of quantitative methods. Indeed, quantitative statistics and studies will be widely consulted as a vital part of the thesis enquiry (Greater London Authority, 2005 Sections 1-7). It just happens to be the case th at qualitative research is a more appropriate means to seek to explain the particular context and rationales underpinning the issue of affordable housing in the context of this particular study. The points, mentioned above regarding the qualitative/quantitative aspects of the wider research paradigm are therefore merely a defence of the qualitative method which will form the main bedrock of this research design.2.3 Sources and cloth This thesis will rely upon primary data gathered through interviews with interested parties and stakeholders in the area of affordable housing. Specifically, groups such as topical anesthetic residents and key workers in London will be interviewed and an interview with a lodging connecter in nonting Hill will be conducted. The methodology for this thesis will also rely on sources, such as Government reports and true debates, reports/sources from interested parties in the non-profit making sector, case-studies and contemporary and historical books. These sources will all be used to contextualise the two case studies which, as has been explained previously, form a pivot of the thesis. Archival research in the form of retrieving and consulting relevant press commonations and speeches through these means will also be alpha. The research will therefore be primary and secondary in nature, and it will mainly make wide reference to qualitative/phenomenological material. point of reference will also be made to quantitative and empirically derived data. Examining the escape of sources which have been explained above will check into that the research engages the subject with the incumbent degree of depth and theoretical perspective.2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations The conclusion of this chapter is that qualitative research is eventually more compatible with the overall research aims and objectives. Primary and secondary qualitative research will be used to gather the information inevitable to comment on the validity of the hy pothesises outlined above. CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE round PART genius DEFINITIONS AND THE PROBLEM OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN capital of the United Kingdom3.1.a Arguments and Discussions What Does the Concept of low-priced Housing Refer to? low-priced Housing has been delimit by Plymouth urban center Council as Low cost mart, and subsidised housing..that will be operational to people who placenot afford to rent or vitiate mansions generally purchasable on the open food marketplace.that definition should be framed to lose for the life of the plan, for instance through reference to the level of local anesthetic incomes and their kindred to dwelling prices or rents, rather than to a particular price or rent applicable at that one point in condemnation (http//www.plymouth.gov.uk ).Affordable housing causes particular demographic cleavages such as the unavailability of true areas of London to what are referred to as key or essential workers such as teachers, nurses, poli ce officers and employees of the health and mixer service (Greater London Authority, 2005 Section 5.16) (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16). This problem of inaccessibility means that these groups are priced out of the market which means that on the salary that is typically realise by people in their jobs, it is difficult to envision a class which is affordable (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16).The problem of affordable housing has also defined as infrastructure needfully. These needs have been elaborated on in the following way The changing face of Londons population has immediate implications for all aspect of London life-education.transport and infrastructure.employment and employability, competitiveness and cultureHousing provides a productive example..London has 42 per cent of Englands most overcrowded mansion households.. (Greater London Authority, 2006 Section 2.8).Affordable housing therefore refers to a office staff where there are not sufficient numbers of houses being built to come crossways the level of require there is for these types of houses and accommodation in general (Greater London Authority, 2006 Section 5.17 and Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16) (Barker, 2006 p.7). This web site (some would put artificially) increases the price of property within certain areas affected by affordable housing shortages. These are essentially the chemical mechanism of affordable housing. This definition therefore goes to the heart of what the concept means in practical and real terms. However, this definition does not encapsulate how malleable this concept of affordable housing gutter be when it is viewed from particular standpoints.The concept of affordable housing is peculiarly linked with certain social and economic problems, such as social exclusion, poverty and crime (Pacione, 1997 p.7 and Rugg, 1999 p.19). This is also supported through the primary research findings of the writer. An interview with Kate Bond revealed that she was suspicious of the soci al problems which are associated with affordable housing developments and is reluctant to allow her children to play in these areas (Interview One, 2006 p.1).Affordable housing can therefore also be interpreted from a purely ethical standpoint, in which case it would refer to the wider problem of housing shortages being linked to problems such as poverty, crime and low remuneration for certain sectoral groups. In terms of political economy (and this will be looked at in more detail in the next section) this ethical perspective it somewhat hang up from the abbreviation and the problem becomes one which is defined in terms of how certain factors such as deliver, indigence, resources and money shape the concept of affordability in terms of the housing sector.These issues of definition are important to an outline of affordable housing since, if one is to examine the question of who really wants affordable housing, it is imperative to vulgarise the concept in sufficient detail. Th erefore, the problem of affordable housing and its theoretical underpinnings and context will be examined alongside a discussion of what the concept essentially means to different people, as the next section, an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing and who really wants it, will elucidate.3.1.b Economic abbreviation of the ProblemThe price of housing in a unornamented-market economy is unconquerable by grant and film. The supply of houses increases, other things equal, as the price of housing rises. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, makers will find it profitable to divvy up more resources to the production of houses relative to the production of other things they might otherwise produce. However, as the price of housing rises, other things equal, the carry for housing waterfall. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, consumers will find it advantageous to substitute away f rom the habit of houses towards the consumption of other obedients that are now relatively cheaper to purchase. The price of housing, cognize as the offset price, is the price at which these two forces, charter and supply are equal. This is how economists typically analyse markets (Landsburg, 2002 ch.1).How does the price of housing adjust to catch that equipoise is reached? If consume exceeds supply, past there is more motive for housing at the animate price than makers are instinctive to supply at that price. In such circumstances, economists say that purchasers of houses are rationed not everyone who wants to steal a house at the existing price can get one. These authorization purchasers low competing with one another by offering suppliers a slightly higher price for a house than was the case in the market signly. This has two effects first of all, the higher price induces more supply, and secondly, the higher price displaces ask. This means that the profusio n demand in the market that existed initially waterfall as a sequel of competitor between rationed purchasers. Naturally, this process of competition will continue until prices have been control upwards sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and pleonastic demand falls to zero.Of course, this process can be reversed. recollect that at the existing price the supply of houses exceeds the demand. Now it is the producers of houses who are rationed not everyone who wants to sell a house at the existing price can. As before, these potential sellers start competing with one another by offering purchasers a slightly lower price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects first of all, the lower price induces less supply, and secondly, the lower price raises demand. This means that the excess supply in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed sellers. Jus t like the previous case, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid d takeward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero (Landsburg, 2002 ch.7).What are we to make of this analysis from political economy? Economics helps us to understand how prices are determined. They are determined by the forces of supply and demand operating through the mechanism described above. nevertheless can this give us some insight into the concept of affordability? Not really. The archetype of affordability is one that does not make sense within the playing field of economics. This might be a weakness of economics, but it might also be that the concept itself is meaningless.Let me explain. In economics, the counterweight price of housing (also kn admit as the market price) is the price that is desirable from a social point of view. It can neither be too high or too low. Provided that the housin g market is a so-called competitive market then the equilibrium price is the one that society ought to want (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). How does economics reach this impress conclusion? It does so from noting that at the equilibrium price, all gains from good deal in the market are maximised (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). In other words, disrespect claims that economics is a positivist subject, it is committed to a specific prescriptive theory of good (Hausman and McPherson, 1996 Ch. 1 and 8). That theory says that what is socially desirable maximises the gains from trade. What does this mean?Let us return to the excess demand example mentioned above. Imagine that at the initial market price, purchasers of houses are rationed not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. It is simple to gift that at this price, the increase in price needed to induce producers to do just one more house is strictlyless than what potential purchasers would be volition to cook u p a producer in order to found that house (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). Given that this condition is satisfied, it is always possible for a inversely sound trade to occur between a potential purchaser and a potential seller.To expand this, imagine that a producer of houses (a builder, say) needs the price of houses to rise from 100,000 to 118,000 in order to find it profitable to build 11 houses as remote to 10. If there is a situation of excess demand in the market whenever the price of a house is 100,000 then it is always possible to show that the maximum price someone would be willing to impart in order to induce the producer to build the superfluous house is strictly greater than 118,000. If that price is, for example, 150,000, then the two parties can trade to their mutual advantage. Imagine that the potential buyer offers the producer a price of 125,000 in order to build the house. This is a price the producer will happily accept. He or she would have built the house for 11 8,000 but instead gets 125,000 the producer is correct-off by 7000. Economists say that producer senseless rises by 7000 (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8). Similarly, the buyer gets the house for 125,000 but was willing to hold 150,000 for it. The buyer is better-off by 25,000. Economists say that consumer surplus rises by 25,000 (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8). An important insight from economics, as seen in this example, is that mutually advantageous trade is possible. calling is not necessarily a zero-sum game.How does this relate to the idea that the equilibrium price is the socially desirable one? It does so in the following way. As the excess demand in the market is gradually eliminated through upward movement in prices, the scope for mutually advantageous trade between buyers and sellers shrinks. Remarkably, when the excess demand for houses vanishes and the market is in equilibrium, no more mutually advantageous trades are possible. The price that would induce a producer to build an additi onal house is equal to the maximum price someone would be willing to pay for it neither consumer surplus nor producer surplus can rise if this trade takes place. At the market equilibrium, all gains from trade have been realised and no more are possible. Economists refer to this state as one of economic efficiency or Pareto efficiency. (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8).The above analysis is the main reason why economists (admittedly with some caution) advocate the use of free markets. If a market is competitive then it will produce on its own devices an equilibrium that is socially desirable (if one accepts the principle of economic efficiency). Adam metalworker referred to this general idea (albeit in a different context) as the hidden Hand. He saidEvery individualgenerally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic help to that of foreign fabrication he intends only his own security and by directin g that pains in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an out of sight hand to promote an end which was no part of his end (metalworker, 1776 p.243).Smiths idea is that people acting in their own egocentrism may produce unintended consequences which, surprisingly, can dole out the social good. In the example above, individuals through competition with one another push the market price towards its equilibrium value, and this value is socially desirable. However, to do this was not the intention of the individuals involved. They were just competing with one another and trading with sellers for their own private benefit.How does this analysis help with the problem of affordable housing? From an economic point of view, affordability is a meaningless concept. It is simply not a social objective for things to be affordable, rather the government should seek to promote competition in th e housing market and then leave the market to its own devices.This conclusion of economics is striking and quite at odds with other perspectives on this problem. I will argue that affordability is an important problem, and that something fundamental is lose from the economic approach to housing. Within economics what is missing is some notion of equity, or a concern for how the gains from trade are distributed across different people. To illustrate this point, imagine that the equilibrium price of a house in a competitive housing market is 200,000. Then those who are willing to pay 200,000 or more for a property will get one, and the situation will be efficient from an economic point of view. However, this might not be the ethically appropriate way to allocate houses to people. The reason is somewhat obvious. What someone is willing to pay for anything is constrained by their income. A ample person might be willing to pay more for a house than a poor person, but this does not mea n that it is better that the rich person gets the house as opposed to the poor person. This is sometimes referred to in economics as the equity-efficiency trade-off. This is the idea that less efficiency is the price we have to pay sometimes if we want to ensure a more equitable distribution of goods across people (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8). Policies designed to promote affordable housing fall into this category. The people who will gain the most from them are people on low income, who cannot guarantee that they will be allocated a house through the market mechanism.3.1.c How is the Problem of Affordable Housing address? Various policy initiatives have been introduced to ameliorate the problem of affordable housing in London. These will be discussed in this section. These policies and whether they have a corroboratory impact upon the community will also be evaluated in this section.One such policy takes the form of Section 106 of the townsfolk and Country homework propel 1990 (which became operative in 1947 (Jackson, J., 1963 p.18 ), which seeks to address the problems which may arise in relation to affordable housing and the provision of local services (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). Where a major developer wishes to obtain formulation permission for a development in a given area, it is the case that such developments will put gouge on local services such as schools or hospitals this Act seeks to ensure that some of the cost of such developments are borne by the developers who wish to develop the area (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). Section 106 of this statute therefore provides that agreements may be reached between local planning authorities and developers in relation to planning permission, where the developer is required to make financial contributions towards the local services in the areas where the be after developments are to be built (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). However, this statute has been criticised, specially by Kate Barker (2006 p.11) , as being in drastic need to reform to make it more simple and certain. The Barker Review also recommended in relation to Section 106, that it be scaled back to address the direct impacts of developments (Barker, 2006 p.11).Also, Housing Associations in London such as the Keystart Housing Association, Tower Homes, metropolitan Home Ownership and London StrAnalysis of Affordable Housing in LondonAnalysis of Affordable Housing in London1.1 Arguments and Discussions A report published recently by the Greater London Authority on the problem of affordable housing in London in June 2005, revealed that the issue of affordable housing (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16) was the most pressing matter Londoners wished to see dealt with in terms of improving London as a place to live (Greater London Authority, 2005 Section 2.3). The Barker Review of Housing Supply, not only supported this viewpoint, but it identified housing as a basic human need (Barker, 2006 p.1).Affordable housing in London is the refore a controversial and highly topical subject at the moment (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16) (Barker, 2006 p.7). The debate surrounding it is underpinned by various political, sociological, economic and financial factors (Greater London Authority, 2005 Karn and Wolman, 1992 p16 (Rugg,1999 p.19). This thesis will examine why there is an affordable housing shortage who really would benefit from affordable housing and what sectors of the population are affected by problems associated with affordable housing. The concept of affordable and who really wants it will be examined in detail, since the notion of affordability is essentially so subjective that it is open to interpretation on many levels. Affordability as a concept, will therefore be examined from an ethical point of view from an economic point of view and finally from a sociological and political point of view, since these viewpoints will all constrain and influence the ultimate interpretation of what it means to be affordable. The thesis will attempt to discover if any agency or individual may be blamed for problems associated with affordable housing in London and the policy context this relates to. Historical factors such as Thatchers Right to Buy policy (Evans, 2004 p.20) will be examined as well as contemporary initiatives such as equity loans for certain keyworkers schemes (Greater London Authority, 2005 Sections 5.16). Where historical issues have impacted the contemporary manifestation of issues connected with affordable housing, these will be analysed.Specifically, the thesis will examine contemporary and historical issues relating to affordable housing through two in depth case studies. One will be on the subject of the Right to Buy policy introduced by Thatcher and the other will relate to the definition and depth of debate contained within the idea of affordable housing. These two in depth case studies will be examined qualitatively and will be referred to throughout the thesis. There will al so be an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing, and ideas such as artificially controlling the prices of houses in London will be considered. In this sense, there will be a theoretical evaluation of who really wants affordable housing, as the research will specifically ask if it would be desirable to advocate the imposition of affordable housing upon the London housing market.The thesis will also consider various issues which are related to the problem of affordable housing such as social and economic policies within the city itself and the social problems which are themselves shaped by shortages of affordable housing in London. Therefore various themes will be drawn out during the course of the thesis and these will include social exclusion, poverty, salary concerns amongst professional and semi-professional sectors, house prices, population and demographic cleavages, anti-social behaviour and crime (Greater London Authority, 2005, Section 5.16 ). These themes will be drawn together to ultimately address the question of Who really wants affordable housing?.1.2 Conclusions and Recommendations At this stage the conclusions and recommendations of the chapter are that given the issues which have been highlighted above, an argument can be made that affordable housing is a controversial issue which warrants further investigation. These investigations will attempt to shed more light on the concept of affordable housing and who really wants it. The next chapter will look at the methodology for the thesis, which will set out the means through which this may be achieved. CHAPTER TWO METHODOLOGY 2.1 OverviewThis section will explain the definition and nature of qualitative research and how it will be used in the thesis inquiry. It will outline the research methods which will be used in the research and what framework these methods will be used within. The research will be based upon a qualitative analysis of two case studies one contemporary which wil l be based on the concept of affordable housing itself, and the other historical and this will centred on the Right to Buy policy introduced by Thatcher in 1980. These case studies will be derived from examination of published texts within the field of economic and politics. These texts have been identified as an appendix to the thesis. Where quantitative information is relevant to the thesis this will be looked at, but evaluated qualitatively, since the basis of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. Primary evidence in the form of interviews was also used.2.2 HypothesisThere are two hypothesises which will feature in this thesis.The first is that affordable housing is needed and wanted by the economically disadvantaged within London, and these groups include the poor, the disabled and specific sectors of workers who do not earn enough money to buy their own houses within London.Another hypothesis of the study is that affordable housing is a problem which comprises many interrelated and intersecting issues all of which may be seen as sociological, economic and political. It follows that any credible proposals in relation to change magnitude the problem of affordable housing must take this into account, and simultaneously address economic, political and sociological problems. The essence of this hypothesis is therefore that this is the best why to understand and to approach the description and evaluation of the problem of affordable housing in London and who really wants it. These hypothesises will be tested throughout the thesis.2.3 Aims and ObjectivesSpecifically, the primary aim of the study is to examine whether the above mentioned hypothesises can be supported. Overall the aim of the study is to examine the concept of affordable housing in London, and who really wants it.Primary qualitative data in the form of interviews with key workers and London residents affected by the affordable housing problem, will also be conducted in order to achiev e a better understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London. Another aim of the study is to present and interpret these results. Various perspectives on the problem of affordable housing its possible solutions and impacts will be advanced and discussed by the writer on the basis of these investigations. The study will aim therefore to use this discussion in order to achieve a more full understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London who really wants it and related sociological, economic and political issues.Ultimately the thesis will aim to add original literature to the research pool in relation to the problem of affordable housing in London, providing a detailed and holistic overview of the problem who it affects and how its adverse effects may be lessened.2.4 Arguments and Discussions Definition of Qualitative Research/Explanation of Why Qualitative Research is Appropriate There are two main categories of research methods qualitative methods (Bryman, 1995 p20) and quantitative methods (Bornat, Chamberlayne and Wengraf, 2000 Chapter One). The best way to define one is by reference and comparison to the other since the paradigm of research enquiry is mainly split between these two different research rationales (Bryman, 1995 p95 and 20). Qualitative research aims to explain concepts and phenomena (Bryman, 1995 p95). Specifically the concept of affordable housing will be addressed in this research. As we have seen explained above, the focus of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. However, in what ways is a qualitative research enquiry more appropriate to this question relating to affordable housing?Qualitative research tends to be more holistic (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) than specific which means that it seeks to understand a topic in the round (Bryman, 1995 p.20). On the contrary, quantitative methods value specificity and outcome linked methods of research (Trout, 1998 p.113). This holistic characteristic of quali tative research fits the wider aim of this thesis enquiry, as the problem of affordable housing, its causes, purpose, its critique and its improvement are all topics which, too, must be understood and approached in the round. Therefore, while quantitative work tends to predict and hypothesise (Trout, 1998 p.113) about possible outcomes, the qualitative researcher will often embark upon their research enquiry with an open mind (Bryman, 1995 p.20), researching malleable conclusions as the enquiry unfolds. This open ended research framework therefore fits the infinitely complex dynamics of affordable housing more appropriately (Greater London Authority, 2005 Section 1-5).This open-ended research aim (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) relating to qualitative research may be contrasted with the aim of quantitative research which usually seeks to be confirmatory (Trout, 1998 p.113), rather than (and also more so than) explanatory (Harrison, 2001 p.68). In this context, qualitative research may be understood as inductive (Bryman, 1995 p.20) whereas quantitative research tends to be more deductive in nature. This type of research (qualitative) tends to be situational in nature and tends to reflect given cultural and theoretical mores (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12). This imbibes qualitative research methods with a level of subjectivity which would not be appropriate in a quantitative or positivist study, since the processes under examination (Greater London Authority, 2006 Sections 1-5) often cannot be pinned down by or encapsulated within a quantitative research framework. Again these characteristics of qualitative research fit the enquiry into affordable housing more appropriately since the levels of subjectivity involved in the arguments and theories connected with affordable housing are vast (Greater London Authority, 2006 Sections 1-5).Differences between qualitative and quantitative research may also be explained by arguing that qualitative research is process related (Bryman, 1995 p.20) with a relative lack of control (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) over the various processes which are to be understood, whereas conversely variables are strictly controlled within the framework of a quantitative research framework (Trout, 1998 p.113). Others have explained the differences between qualitative and quantitative enquiries by arguing that the former is anthropological in nature (Bryman, 1995 p.20) (since it has a focus on society and sociological forces), while the latter quantitative research being more scientific (Trout, 1998 p.113).Qualitative research methods are also appropriate to this enquiry into affordable housing since they are unstructured (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) and discursive (Bryman, 1995 p.20), allowing a researcher room to analyse possible outcomes/rationales/explanations (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) as well as the ones which will potentially be accepted as the most credible. Colloquially, this characteristic of qualitative research leads many to regard it as a soft subject area (Bryman, 1995 p.20) which lends itself well to the area of social science research as opposed to hard subject areas such as maths or physics which may be described as more tangible (Trout, 1998 p.113).However, this particular dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative research methods discredits qualitative research for no better reason than those who critique qualitative research in these terms fail to understand that concepts and phenomena which may be described in tangible, or scientific terms do not take precedence over research enquiries into what is not tangible. Simply because a concept may be difficult to understand in isolation, as qualitative subject matter often is does not mean that it is not capable of being understood credibly. Simply because qualitative subject matter may be understood credibly in different ways by different people does not strip each differing rationale of validity simply becaus e another explanation may be pointed to.It must also be remembered that the objectivity of quantitative research often precludes the existence of other explanations of research phenomena, not because there are no valid alternative explanations but because the nature of quantitative enquiry is not always equipped to cope with multi-faceted concepts, whose existence and form may only be conjectured upon and not encapsulated within a given explanation. Concepts and phenomena are not always thoroughly understood through mere extrapolation, which is what makes the pragmatic and open-ended nature of qualitative enquiry universally important and specifically pivotal to this thesis enquiry into affordable housing.These points should however, in no way, be interpreted as a critique of quantitative methods. Indeed, quantitative statistics and studies will be widely consulted as a vital part of the thesis enquiry (Greater London Authority, 2005 Sections 1-7). It just happens to be the case tha t qualitative research is a more appropriate means to seek to explain the particular context and rationales underpinning the issue of affordable housing in the context of this particular study. The points, mentioned above regarding the qualitative/quantitative aspects of the wider research paradigm are therefore merely a defence of the qualitative method which will form the main bedrock of this research design.2.3 Sources and Framework This thesis will rely upon primary data gathered through interviews with interested parties and stakeholders in the area of affordable housing. Specifically, groups such as local residents and key workers in London will be interviewed and an interview with a Housing Association in Notting Hill will be conducted. The methodology for this thesis will also rely on sources, such as Government reports and current debates, reports/sources from interested parties in the non-profit making sector, case-studies and contemporary and historical books.These source s will all be used to contextualise the two case studies which, as has been explained previously, form a pivot of the thesis. Archival research in the form of retrieving and consulting relevant press publications and speeches through these means will also be important. The research will therefore be primary and secondary in nature, and it will mainly make wide reference to qualitative/phenomenological material. Reference will also be made to quantitative and empirically derived data. Examining the range of sources which have been explained above will ensure that the research engages the subject with the necessary degree of depth and theoretical perspective.2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations The conclusion of this chapter is that qualitative research is ultimately more compatible with the overall research aims and objectives. Primary and secondary qualitative research will be used to gather the information needed to comment on the validity of the hypothesises outlined above. CHAPTE R THREE LITERATURE REVIEW PART ONE DEFINITIONS AND THE PROBLEM OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN LONDON3.1.a Arguments and Discussions What Does the Concept of Affordable Housing Refer to?Affordable Housing has been defined by Plymouth City Council as Low cost market, and subsidised housing..that will be available to people who cannot afford to rent or buy houses generally available on the open market.that definition should be framed to endure for the life of the plan, for instance through reference to the level of local incomes and their relationship to house prices or rents, rather than to a particular price or rent applicable at that one point in time (http//www.plymouth.gov.uk ).Affordable housing causes particular demographic cleavages such as the inaccessibility of certain areas of London to what are referred to as key or essential workers such as teachers, nurses, police officers and employees of the health and social services (Greater London Authority, 2005 Section 5.16) (Karn and Wo lman, 1992 p.16). This problem of inaccessibility means that these groups are priced out of the market which means that on the salary that is typically earned by people in their jobs, it is difficult to find a house which is affordable (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16).The problem of affordable housing has also defined as infrastructure needs. These needs have been elaborated on in the following way The changing face of Londons population has immediate implications for every aspect of London life-education.transport and infrastructure.employment and employability, competitiveness and cultureHousing provides a useful example..London has 42 per cent of Englands most overcrowded households.. (Greater London Authority, 2006 Section 2.8).Affordable housing therefore refers to a situation where there are not sufficient numbers of houses being built to satisfy the level of demand there is for these types of houses and accommodation in general (Greater London Authority, 2006 Section 5.17 and Kar n and Wolman, 1992 p.16) (Barker, 2006 p.7). This situation (some would say artificially) increases the price of property within certain areas affected by affordable housing shortages. These are essentially the mechanics of affordable housing. This definition therefore goes to the heart of what the concept means in practical and real terms. However, this definition does not encapsulate how malleable this concept of affordable housing can be when it is viewed from particular standpoints.The concept of affordable housing is particularly linked with certain social and economic problems, such as social exclusion, poverty and crime (Pacione, 1997 p.7 and Rugg, 1999 p.19). This is also supported through the primary research findings of the writer. An interview with Kate Bond revealed that she was suspicious of the social problems which are associated with affordable housing developments and is reluctant to allow her children to play in these areas (Interview One, 2006 p.1).Affordable hous ing can therefore also be interpreted from a purely ethical standpoint, in which case it would refer to the wider problem of housing shortages being linked to problems such as poverty, crime and low wages for certain sectoral groups. In terms of economics (and this will be looked at in more detail in the next section) this ethical perspective it somewhat suspended from the analysis and the problem becomes one which is defined in terms of how certain factors such as supply, demand, resources and money shape the concept of affordability in terms of the housing sector.These issues of definition are important to an analysis of affordable housing since, if one is to examine the question of who really wants affordable housing, it is imperative to extrapolate the concept in sufficient detail. Therefore, the problem of affordable housing and its theoretical underpinnings and context will be examined alongside a discussion of what the concept essentially means to different people, as the nex t section, an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing and who really wants it, will elucidate.3.1.b Economic Analysis of the ProblemThe price of housing in a free-market economy is determined by supply and demand. The supply of houses increases, other things equal, as the price of housing rises. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, producers will find it profitable to allocate more resources to the production of houses relative to the production of other things they might otherwise produce. However, as the price of housing rises, other things equal, the demand for housing falls. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, consumers will find it advantageous to substitute away from the consumption of houses towards the consumption of other goods that are now relatively cheaper to purchase. The price of housing, known as the equilibrium price, is the price at which these two forces, demand and supply are equal. This is how economists typically analyse markets (Landsburg, 2002 ch.1).How does the price of housing adjust to ensure that equilibrium is reached? If demand exceeds supply, then there is more demand for housing at the existing price than producers are willing to supply at that price. In such circumstances, economists say that purchasers of houses are rationed not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. These potential purchasers start competing with one another by offering suppliers a slightly higher price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects first of all, the higher price induces more supply, and secondly, the higher price lowers demand. This means that the excess demand in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed purchasers. Naturally, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid upward sufficiently to ensure that demand an d supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero.Of course, this process can be reversed. Imagine that at the existing price the supply of houses exceeds the demand. Now it is the producers of houses who are rationed not everyone who wants to sell a house at the existing price can. As before, these potential sellers start competing with one another by offering purchasers a slightly lower price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects first of all, the lower price induces less supply, and secondly, the lower price raises demand. This means that the excess supply in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed sellers. Just like the previous case, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid downward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero (Landsburg, 2002 ch.7).Wh at are we to make of this analysis from economics? Economics helps us to understand how prices are determined. They are determined by the forces of supply and demand operating through the mechanism described above. But can this give us some insight into the concept of affordability? Not really. The notion of affordability is one that does not make sense within the discipline of economics. This might be a weakness of economics, but it might also be that the concept itself is meaningless.Let me explain. In economics, the equilibrium price of housing (also known as the market price) is the price that is desirable from a social point of view. It can neither be too high or too low. Provided that the housing market is a so-called competitive market then the equilibrium price is the one that society ought to want (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). How does economics reach this surprising conclusion? It does so from noting that at the equilibrium price, all gains from trade in the market are maximised (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). In other words, despite claims that economics is a positivist subject, it is committed to a specific normative theory of good (Hausman and McPherson, 1996 Ch. 1 and 8). That theory says that what is socially desirable maximises the gains from trade. What does this mean?Let us return to the excess demand example mentioned above. Imagine that at the initial market price, purchasers of houses are rationed not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. It is simple to demonstrate that at this price, the increase in price needed to induce producers to build just one more house is strictlyless than what potential purchasers would be willing to pay a producer in order to build that house (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). Given that this condition is satisfied, it is always possible for a mutually beneficial trade to occur between a potential buyer and a potential seller.To illustrate this, imagine that a producer of houses (a builder, say) needs th e price of houses to rise from 100,000 to 118,000 in order to find it profitable to build 11 houses as opposed to 10. If there is a situation of excess demand in the market whenever the price of a house is 100,000 then it is always possible to show that the maximum price someone would be willing to pay in order to induce the producer to build the additional house is strictly greater than 118,000. If that price is, for example, 150,000, then the two parties can trade to their mutual advantage. Imagine that the potential buyer offers the producer a price of 125,000 in order to build the house. This is a price the producer will happily accept. He or she would have built the house for 118,000 but instead gets 125,000 the producer is better-off by 7000. Economists say that producer surplus rises by 7000 (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8). Similarly, the buyer gets the house for 125,000 but was willing to pay 150,000 for it. The buyer is better-off by 25,000. Economists say that consumer surplus ris es by 25,000 (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8). An important insight from economics, as seen in this example, is that mutually advantageous trade is possible. Trade is not necessarily a zero-sum game.How does this relate to the idea that the equilibrium price is the socially desirable one? It does so in the following way. As the excess demand in the market is gradually eliminated through upward movement in prices, the scope for mutually advantageous trade between buyers and sellers shrinks. Remarkably, when the excess demand for houses vanishes and the market is in equilibrium, no more mutually advantageous trades are possible. The price that would induce a producer to build an additional house is equal to the maximum price someone would be willing to pay for it neither consumer surplus nor producer surplus can rise if this trade takes place. At the market equilibrium, all gains from trade have been realised and no more are possible. Economists refer to this state as one of economic efficienc y or Pareto efficiency. (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8).The above analysis is the main reason why economists (admittedly with some caution) advocate the use of free markets. If a market is competitive then it will produce on its own devices an equilibrium that is socially desirable (if one accepts the principle of economic efficiency). Adam Smith referred to this general idea (albeit in a different context) as the Invisible Hand. He saidEvery individualgenerally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry he intends only his own security and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention (Smith, 1776 p.243).Smiths idea is that people acting in their own self-interest may produce uninten ded consequences which, surprisingly, can serve the social good. In the example above, individuals through competition with one another push the market price towards its equilibrium value, and this value is socially desirable. However, to do this was not the intention of the individuals involved. They were just competing with one another and trading with sellers for their own private benefit.How does this analysis help with the problem of affordable housing? From an economic point of view, affordability is a meaningless concept. It is simply not a social objective for things to be affordable, rather the government should seek to promote competition in the housing market and then leave the market to its own devices.This conclusion of economics is striking and quite at odds with other perspectives on this problem. I will argue that affordability is an important problem, and that something fundamental is missing from the economic approach to housing. Within economics what is missing is some notion of equity, or a concern for how the gains from trade are distributed across different people. To illustrate this point, imagine that the equilibrium price of a house in a competitive housing market is 200,000. Then those who are willing to pay 200,000 or more for a property will get one, and the situation will be efficient from an economic point of view. However, this might not be the ethically appropriate way to allocate houses to people. The reason is fairly obvious. What someone is willing to pay for anything is constrained by their income. A rich person might be willing to pay more for a house than a poor person, but this does not mean that it is better that the rich person gets the house as opposed to the poor person. This is sometimes referred to in economics as the equity-efficiency trade-off. This is the idea that less efficiency is the price we have to pay sometimes if we want to ensure a more equitable distribution of goods across people (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8) . Policies designed to promote affordable housing fall into this category. The people who will gain the most from them are people on low income, who cannot guarantee that they will be allocated a house through the market mechanism.3.1.c How is the Problem of Affordable Housing Addressed? Various policy initiatives have been introduced to ameliorate the problem of affordable housing in London. These will be discussed in this section. These policies and whether they have a positive impact upon the community will also be evaluated in this section.One such policy takes the form of Section 106 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 (which became operative in 1947 (Jackson, J., 1963 p.18 ), which seeks to address the problems which may arise in relation to affordable housing and the provision of local services (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). Where a major developer wishes to obtain planning permission for a development in a given area, it is the case that such developments will put pr essure on local services such as schools or hospitals this Act seeks to ensure that some of the cost of such developments are borne by the developers who wish to develop the area (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). Section 106 of this statute therefore provides that agreements may be reached between local planning authorities and developers in relation to planning permission, where the developer is required to make financial contributions towards the local services in the areas where the planned developments are to be built (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). However, this statute has been criticised, especially by Kate Barker (2006 p.11), as being in drastic need to reform to make it more simple and certain. The Barker Review also recommended in relation to Section 106, that it be scaled back to address the direct impacts of developments (Barker, 2006 p.11).Also, Housing Associations in London such as the Keystart Housing Association, Tower Homes, Metropolitan Home Ownership and London S tr